Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Influences on the Prevalence and Development of Child Aggressiveness

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The development of aggressiveness between 5 and 17 years and some parental influences on this development were analyzed using data from Germany. International studies have shown a “camel humps” curve, i.e., a peak of aggression of children (primarily boys) between 2 and 4 years and a second peak of antisocial or aggressive behavior of boys between 15 and 20 years, but small groups of children and adolescents were persistently aggressive. A representative longitudinal study (2,190 children and their parents) and an additional study (1,372 children and adolescents) were conducted in Germany. The hypotheses of this article are that in the data can be found (a) an U-shaped course of aggressiveness for boys and girls, but on different levels, (b) a minority of persistently aggressive children and youth, (c) influences of parental temperaments, behavioral tendencies, parenting styles and the family status on the children’s aggressiveness. The results replicate roughly the “valley” of the U-shaped course of aggressiveness. Small groups of chronically aggressive children were found as well. Influences of parental temperaments and corresponding behavioral tendencies (internalizing and externalizing behavior), parenting styles (child-centered communication, use of violence) and the social status of the families on child aggressiveness confirmed the hypotheses. These processes were moderated by gender effects between mothers, fathers, daughters, and sons. In regard to the group of persistently aggressive young people prevention of aggression should start early in childhood and over the long term. Parent education should consider more the individual personalities of the parents, not only parenting styles.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for child behavior checklist 4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alink, L. R., Mesman, J., van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Koot, H. M., et al. (2006). The early childhood aggression curve: Development of physical aggression in 10- to 50-month-old children. Child Development, 77, 954–966.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alt, C., & Quellenberg, H. (2005). Daten, Design und Konstrukte. Grundlagen des Kinderpanels. In C. Alt (Ed.), Kinderleben—Aufwachsen zwischen Familie, Freunden und Institutionen (pp. 277–303). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, L. A., Jacobson, K. C., Raine, A., Lozano, D. I., & Bezdjian, S. (2007). Genetic and environmental bases of childhood antisocial behavior: A multi-informant twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 219–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, E. D., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., Fontaine, N., Arseneault, L., Vitaro, F., et al. (2008). Predictive validity and early predictors of peer-victimization trajectories in preschool. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 1185–1192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brendgen, M., Dionne, G., Girard, A., Boivin, M., Vitaro, F., & Pérusse, D. (2005). Examining genetic and environmental effects on social aggression: A study of 6-year-old twins. Child Development, 76, 930–946.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brotman, L., Gouley, K., Huang, K., Rosenfelt, A., O’Neal, C., Klein, R. G., et al. (2008). Preventive intervention for preschoolers at high risk for antisocial behavior: Long-term effects on child physical aggression and parenting practices. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 37, 386–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bundeskriminalamt. (2009). PKS-Zeitreihen 1987 bis 2009. Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casas, J. F., Weigel, S. M., Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., Woods, K. E., Yeh, E. A. J., et al. (2006). Early parenting and children’s relational and physical aggression in the preschool and home contexts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 209–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, H., & Hagan, J. (2003). Patterns and explanations of direct physical and indirect nonphysical aggression in childhood. In W. Heitmeyer & J. Hagan (Eds.), The international handbook of violence research (pp. 545–565). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garland, B. H. (2007). Parenting techniques and parent characteristics associated with child externalizing behavior problems. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, S. N. (2008). Bullying and victimization at school: The role of mothers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 109–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heitmeyer, W., & Hagan, J. (Eds.). (2003). The international handbook of violence research. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber, J. (2008). “Der Dritte im Bunde ist immer dabei…”—Die Bedeutung des Vaters im familiären Erziehungsgeschehen. In C. Alt (Ed.), Kinderleben—Individuelle Entwicklungen in sozialen Kontexten (pp. 149–180). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hudziak, J. J., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Bartels, M., Rietveld, M. J. H., Rettew, D. C., Derks, E. M., et al. (2003). Individual differences in aggression: Genetic analyses by age, gender, and informant in 3-, 7-, and 10-year-old Dutch twins. Behavioral Genetics, 33, 575–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., & Boxer, P. (2009). Continuity of aggression from childhood to early adulthood as a predictor of life outcomes: implications for the adolescent-limited and life-course-persistent models. Aggressive Behavior, 35, 136–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huijbregts, S., Séguin, J., Zoccolillo, M., Boivin, M., & Tremblay, R. (2007). Associations of maternal prenatal smoking with early childhood physical aggression, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and their co-occurrence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 203–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kokko, K., Pulkkinen, L., Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., & Boxer, P. (2009). Intensity of aggression in childhood as a predictor of different forms of adult aggression: A two-country (Finland and the United States) analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 9–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, A. S., Takeuchi, D. T., & Alegría, M. (2006). Parent-to-child aggression among Asian American parents: Culture, context, and vulnerability. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 68, 1261–1275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lay, B., Ihle, W., Esser, G., & Schmidt, M. H. (2005). Juvenile-episodic, continued or adult-onset delinquency? Risk conditions analysed in a cohort of children followed up to the age of 25 years. European Journal of Criminology, 2, 39–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K. H., Baillargeon, R. H., Vermunt, J. K., Wu, H. X., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression among 5–11-year-old Canadian boys and girls. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 26–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leve, L. D., Kerr, D. C. R., Shaw, D., Ge, X., Neiderhiser, J. M., Scaramella, L. V., et al. (2010). Infant pathways to externalizing behavior: Evidence of genotype × environment interaction. Child Development, 81, 340–356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Pardini, D., Homish, D. L., Wei, E. H., Crawford, A. M., Farrington, D. P., et al. (2005). The prediction of violence and homicide in young men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1074–1088.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, K. A., Selig, J. P., & Hawley, P. H. (2010). A typological approach to the study of parenting: Associations between maternal parenting patterns and child behaviour and social reception. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 1185–1202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meurs, I., van Reef, J., Verhulst, F., & van der Ende, J. (2009). Intergenerational transmission of child problem behaviors: A longitudinal, population-based study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Buckholtz, J. W., Kolachana, B. R., Hariri, A., Pezawas, L., Blasi, G., et al. (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 6269–6274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, D. R., & Carey, G. (1997). Genetic and environmental architecture of human aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 207–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P., & Stanton, W. (1996). Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: Natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 399–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of boys’ physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181–1196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, R. J., & Trainor, B. C. (2007). Neural mechanisms of aggression. Nature Review Neuroscience, 8, 536–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pérusse, D., & Gendreau, P. L. (2005). Genetics and the development of aggression. In R. Tremblay, W. W. Hartup, & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 223–241). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ravens-Sieberer, U., Wille, N., Bettge, S., & Erhart, M. (2007). Psychische Gesundheit von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland. Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz, 50, 871–878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, B., & Rinker, B. (1998). Temperament. In J. Zinnecker & R. K. Silbereisen (Eds.), Kindheit in Deutschland. Aktueller survey über kinder und ihre eltern (pp. 159–168). Weinheim, Germany: Juventa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, B., Walper, S., Gödde, M., & Jurasic, S. (1997). Dokumentation der Erhebungsinstrumente der 1. Hauptbefragung (rev. ed.). München, Germany: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R. L., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., & Wu, C. I. (1992). Support from spouse as mediator and moderator of the disruptive influence of economic strain on parenting. Child Development, 63, 1282–1301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1989). The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness, and types of later crime. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 710–718.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. (2007). Conflict tactics scales. In N. A. Jackson (Ed.), Encyclopedia of domestic violence (pp. 190–197). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2007). The development of youth violence: An old story with new data. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 13, 161–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2008). Understanding development and prevention of chronic physical aggression: Towards experimental epigenetic studies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 2613–2622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E., Hartup, W. W., & Archer, J. (Eds.). (2005). Developmental origins of aggression. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R., & Szyf, M. (2010). Developmental origins of chronic physical aggression and epigenetics. Epigenomics, 2, 495–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Aken, C., Junger, M., Verhoeven, M., van Aken, M. A. G., Deković, M., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2007). Parental personality, parenting and toddlers’ externalising behaviours. European Journal of Personality, 21, 993–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Oord, E. J. C. G., Boomsma, D. I., & Verhulst, F. C. (1994). A study of problem behaviors in 10- to 15-year-old biologically related and unrelated international adoptees. Behavioral Genetics, 24, 193–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Do early difficult temperament and harsh parenting differentially predict reactive and proactive aggression? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 685–695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahl, K. (2002). Development of xenophobia and aggression. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 26, 247–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahl, K. (Ed.). (2003). Skinheads, Neonazis, Mitläufer. Täterstudien und Prävention. Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wahl, K. (2009). Aggression und Gewalt. Ein biologischer, psychologischer und sozialwissenschaftlicher Überblick. Heidelberg, Germany: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wahl, K. (2010). Verbreitung, Entwicklung und Bedingungen der Aggression bei Kindern. Unpublished expertise. München, Deutsches Jugendinstitut.

  • Wahl, K., Tramitz, C., & Blumtritt, J. (2001). Fremdenfeindlichkeit. Auf den Spuren extremer Emotionen. Eine interdisziplinäre Untersuchung. Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Windle, M., & Lerner, R. M. (1986). Reassessing the dimensions of temperamental individuality across the life span: The revised dimensions of temperament survey (DOTS-R). Journal of Adolescent Research, 1, 213–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zentralinstitut für Jugendforschung. (1988). Leipziger Längsschnitt, 3. Welle Leipzig, Germany: ISF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zinnecker, J., & Silbereisen, R. K. (1996). Kindheit in Deutschland: Aktueller survey über kinder und ihre eltern. Weinheim, Germany: Juventa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoccolillo, M., Romano, E., Joubert, D., Mazzarello, T., Côté, S., Boivin, M., et al. (2005). The intergenerational transmission of aggression and antisocial behavior. In R. Tremblay, W. W. Hartup, & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 353–375). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The empirical research was supported by the German Youth Institute, Munich. The review of literature was facilitated by a fellowship from the Institute for Advanced Study, Delmenhorst, awarded to Klaus Wahl. We thank the families who participated in the studies and Christian Alt, Beatriz Barquero, and Ulrich Pötter for comments on drafts of the text.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychosocial Analyses and Prevention - Information System (PAPIS), Höllriegelskreuther Str. 1, 81379, München, Germany

    Klaus Wahl

  2. Fasanenhof Clinic, München, Germany

    Cornelia Metzner

Authors
  1. Klaus Wahl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cornelia Metzner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Klaus Wahl.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wahl, K., Metzner, C. Parental Influences on the Prevalence and Development of Child Aggressiveness. J Child Fam Stud 21, 344–355 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9484-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9484-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation