Abstract
Attention to human–environment relationships in the central Andes has a long history. Although the area is not a neat microcosm of the globe, wholly representative of worldwide trends in the archaeology of human–environment interactions, it has been the site of both seminal investigations in archaeology and a substantial body of recent work that investigates themes of broad archaeological relevance. Specifically, central Andean environments have been variously conceived as structuring, modified, and sacred. These approaches to some extent reflect broad trends in archaeology, while also suggesting directions in which the archaeology of human–environment interactions is moving and highlighting archaeology’s relevance to discussions of contemporary human–environment interactions. This article characterizes concepts that are key for describing central Andean environments and considers the ways in which the particular ecology of the central Andes has informed archaeological research in the region. The example of the central Andes highlights the importance of understanding environments as dynamic, considering both geomorphic and anthropogenic contributors to that dynamism, and examining both ecological (“environment”) and ideological (“landscape”) implications of archaeological landscapes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
Abbott, M. B., and Wolfe, A. P. (2003). Intensive pre-Incan metallurgy recorded by lake sediments from the Bolivian Andes. Science 301: 1893–1895.
Abbott, M. B., Binford, M. W., Brenner, M. and Kelts, K. R. (1997a). A 3500 14C yr high-resolution record of water-level changes in Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru. Quaternary Research 47: 169–180.
Abbott, M. B., Seltzer, G. O., Kelts, K. R., and Southon, J. (1997b). Holocene paleohydrology of the tropical Andes from lake records. Quaternary Research 47: 70–80.
Abbott, M. B., Wolfe, B. B., Wolfe, A. P., Seltzer, G. O., Aravena, R., Mark, B. G., Polissar, P. J., Rodbell, D. T., Rowe, H. D., and Vuille, M. (2003). Holocene paleohydrology and glacial history of the central Andes using multiproxy lake sediment studies. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 123–138.
Aldenderfer, M. S. (1993). Domestic space, mobility, and ecological complementarity: The view from Asana. In Aldenderfer, M. S. (ed.), Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, pp. 12–24.
Aldenderfer, M. S. (1999). The Pleistocene/Holocene transition in Peru and its effects upon human use of the landscape. Quaternary International 53/54: 11–19.
Ambraseys, N. N. (2006). Earthquakes and archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 1008–1016.
Ames Marquez, A., and Francou, B. (1995). Cordillera Blanca glaciares en la historia. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 24: 37–64.
Andrus, C. F. T., Sandweiss, D. H., and Reitz, E. J. (2008). Climate change and archaeology: The Holocene history of El Niño on the coast of Peru. In Reitz, E. J., Scarry, C. M., and Scudder, S. J. (eds.), Case Studies in Environmental Archaeology, 2nd ed., Springer, New York, pp. 143–157.
Anschuetz, K. F., Wilshusen, R. H., and Scheick, C. L. (2001). An archaeology of landscapes: Perspectives and directions. Journal of Archaeological Research 9: 157–211.
Armillas, P. (1961). Land use in pre-Columbian America. In Stamp, L. D. (ed.), A History of Land Use in Arid Regions, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 255–276.
Ashmore, W., and Knapp, A. B. (eds.) (1999). Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives, Blackwell, Malden, MA.
Baied, C. A. (1999). Polylepis spp. en los Andes centrales: un análisis preliminar sobre cambios climáticos y el impacto de la actividad humana en su distribución. In III Simposio Internacional de Desarollo Sustentable de Montañas: entendiendo las interfaces ecológicas para la gestión de los paisajes culturales en los Andes, Corporación Editora Nacional, Quito, pp. 111–112.
Baied, C. A., and Wheeler, J. C. (1993). Evolution of high Andean puna ecosystems: Environment, climate, and culture change over the last 12,000 years in the Central Andes. Mountain Research and Development 13: 145–156.
Baker, P. A., Seltzer, G. O., Fritz, S. C., Dunbar, R. B., Grove, M. J., Tapia, P. M., Cross, S. L., Rowe, H. D., and Broda, J. P. (2001). The history of South American tropical precipitation for the past 25,000 years. Science 291: 640–643.
Balée, W. (2006). The research program of historical ecology. Annual Review of Anthropology 35: 75–98.
Balée, W., and Erickson, C. L. (eds.) (2006). Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology: Studies in the Neotropical Lowlands, Columbia University Press, New York.
Bandelier, A. F. (1906). Traditions of Precolumbian earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in western South America. American Anthropologist 8: 47–81.
Bandy, M. S. (2005). Energetic efficiency and political expediency in Titicaca Basin raised field agriculture. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24: 271–296.
Bauer, B. S. (1998). The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Bauer, B. S., and Stanish, C. (2000). Ritual and Pilgrimage in the Ancient Andes: The Islands of the Sun and the Moon, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Bender, B. (ed.) (1993). Landscape: Politics and Perspectives, Berg, Providence, RI.
Benfer, R. A., Weir, G. H., and Ojeda Enríquez, B. (1987). Early water management technology on the Peruvian coast. In Browman, D. L. (ed.), Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 195-206.
Benson, E. P. (2001). Why sacrifice? In Benson, E. P., and Cook, A. G. (eds.), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 1–20.
Berninghausen, W. H. (1962). Tsunamis reported from the west coast of South America 1562–1960. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 52: 915–921.
Betancourt, J. L., Latorre, C., Rech, J. A., Quade, J., and Rylander, K. A. (2000). A 22,000-year record of monsoonal precipitation from northern Chile’s Atacama Desert. Science 289: 1542–1546.
Billman, B. R. (2002). Irrigation and the origins of the southern Moche state on the north coast of Peru. Latin American Antiquity 13: 371–400.
Binford, L. R. (1962). Archaeology as anthropology. American Antiquity 28: 217–225.
Binford, M., Kolata, A. L., Brenner, M., Janusek, J. W., Seddon, M. T., Abbott, M. B., and Curtis, J. H. (1997). Climate variation and the rise and fall of an Andean civilization. Quaternary Research 47: 235–248.
Bird, R. M. (1987). A postulated tsunami and its effects on cultural development in the Peruvian Early Horizon. American Antiquity 52: 285–303.
Bode, B. (1989). No Bells to Toll: Destruction and Creation in the Andes, Scribner, New York.
Bonavia, D. (1982). Precerámico peruano: los gavilanes: mar, desierto y oasis en la historia del hombre, COFIDE and Instituto Arqueológico Alemán, Lima, Peru.
Boninsegna, J. A. (2002). Progress in South American dendrochronology. PAGES News 10: 11–13.
Bourget, S. (2001). Children and ancestors: Ritual practices at the Moche site of Huaca de la Luna, north coast of Peru. In Benson, E. P., and Cook, A. G. (eds.), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 93–118.
Branch, N. P., Kemp, R. A., Silva, B., Meddens, F. M., Williams, A., Kendall, A., and Pomacanchari, C. V. (2007). Testing the sustainability and sensitivity to climatic change of terrace agricultural systems in the Peruvian Andes: A pilot study. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1–9.
Brenner, M., Hodell, D. A., Curtis, J. H., Rosenmeier, M. F., Binford, M. W., and Abbott, M. B. (2001). Abrupt climate change and pre-Columbian cultural collapse. In Markgraf, V. (ed.), Interhemispheric Climate Linkages, Academic Press, New York, pp. 87–104.
Brooks, W. E., Willett, J. C., Kent, J. D., Vásquez, V., and Rosales, T. (2005). The Muralla Pircada: An ancient Andean debris flow retention dam, Santa Rita B archaeological site, Chao Valley, northern Peru. Landslides 2: 117–123.
Browman, D. L. (1983). Archaeology: Tectonic movement and agrarian collapse in prehispanic Peru. Nature 302: 568–569.
Brumfiel, E. (1992). Distinguished lecture in archaeology: Breaking and entering the ecosystem - Gender, class, and faction steal the show. American Anthropologist 94: 551–568.
Brush, S. B. (1976). Man’s use of an Andean ecosystem. Human Ecology 4: 147-166.
Brush, S. B. (1977). Mountain, Field, and Family: The Economy and Human Ecology of an Andean Valley, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Brush, S. B. (1982). The natural and human environment of the central Andes. Mountain Research and Development 2(1): 19–38.
Budowski, G. (1968). La influencia humana en la vegetación natural de montañas tropicales americanas. In Troll, C. (ed.), Geo-Ecology of the Mountainous Regions of the Tropical Americas, Ferd. Dümmlers Verlag, Bonn, pp. 157–162.
Burger, R. L. (1988). Unity and heterogeneity within the Chavin horizon. In Keatinge, R. W. (ed.), Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of pre-Inca and Inca Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 99–144.
Burger, R. L. (1993). The Chavín horizon: Stylistic chimera or socioeconomic metamorphosis? In Rice, D. S. (ed.), Latin American Horizons, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 41–82.
Burger, R. L. (2003). El Niño, early Peruvian civilization, and human agency: Some thoughts from the Lurin Valley. Fieldiana Botany 43: 90–107.
Bush, M. B., Colinvaux, P. A., Wiemann, M. C., Piperno, D. R., and Liu, K.-B. (1990). Late Pleistocene temperature depression and vegetation change in Ecuadorian Amazonia. Quaternary Research 34: 330–345.
Bush, M. B., Silman, M. R., and Urrego, D. H. (2004). 48,000 years of climate and forest change in a biodiversity hot spot. Science 303: 827–829.
Bush, M. B., Hansen, B. C. S., Rodbell, D. T., Seltzer, G. O., Young, K. R., Leon, B., Abbott, M. B., Silman, M. R., and Gosling, W. D. (2005). A 17000-year history of Andean climate and vegetation change from Laguna de Chochos, Peru. Journal of Quaternary Science 20: 703–714.
Cardich, A. (1985). The fluctuating upper limits of cultivation in the central Andes and their impact on Peruvian prehistory. Advances in World Archaeology 4: 293–333.
Carey, M. (2005). Living and dying with glaciers: People’s historical vulnerability to avalanches and outburst floods in Peru. Global and Planetary Change 47: 122–134.
Carney, H. J., Binford, M. W., Kolata, A. L., Marin, R. R., and Goldman, C. R. (1993). Nutrient and sediment retention in Andean raised-field agriculture. Nature 364: 131–133.
Carré, M., Bentaleb, I., Fontugne, M., and Lavallée, D. (2005). Strong El Nino events during the early Holocene: Stable isotope evidence from Peruvian sea shells. The Holocene 15: 42–47.
Castro, V., and Aldunate, C. (2003). Sacred mountains in the highlands of the south-central Andes. Mountain Research and Development 23: 73–79.
Caviedes, C. N. (1984a). El Niño 1982–83. Geographical Review 74(3): 267–290.
Caviedes, C. N. (1984b). Geography and the lessons from El Niño. The Professional Geographer 36: 428–436.
Chapdelaine, C. (2000). Struggling for survival: The urban class of the Moche site, north coast of Peru. In Bawden, G., and Reycraft, R. M. (eds.), Environmental Disaster and the Archaeology of Human Response, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, pp. 121–142.
Chepstow-Lusty, A., and Winfield, M. (2000). Inca agroforestry: Lessons from the past. Ambio 29: 322–328.
Chepstow-Lusty, A. J., Bennett, K. D., Switsur, V. R., and Kendall, A. (1996). 4000 years of human impact and vegetation change in the central Peruvian Andes: With events paralleling the Maya record? Antiquity 70: 824–833.
Chepstow-Lusty, A. J., Bennett, K. D., Fjeldsa, J., Kendall, A., Galiano, W., and Tupayachi Herrera, A. (1998). Tracing 4,000 years of environmental history in the Cuzco area, Peru, from the pollen record. Mountain Research and Development 18: 159–172.
Chepstow-Lusty, A., Frogley, M. R., Bauer, B. S., Bush, M. B., and Tupayachi Herrera, A. (2003). A late Holocene record of arid events from the Cuzco region, Peru. Journal of Quaternary Science 18: 491–502.
Chepstow-Lusty, A. J., Frogley, M. R., Bauer, B. S., Leng, M. J., Cundy, A. B., Boessenkool, K. P., and Gioda, A. (2007). Evaluating socio-economic change in the Andes using oribatid mite abundances as indicators of domestic animal densities. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1178–1186.
Clement, C. O., and Moseley, M. E. (1991). The spring-fed irrigation system of Carrizal, Peru: A case study of the hypothesis of agrarian collapse. Journal of Field Archaeology 18: 425–443.
Cluff, L. S. (1971). Peru earthquake of May 31, 1970: Engineering geology observations. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 61: 510–533.
Colinvaux, P. A., Olson, K., and Liu, K.-B. (1988). Late-glacial and Holocene pollen diagrams from two endorheic lakes of the Inter-Andean plateau of Ecuador. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology 55: 83–99.
Colinvaux, P. A., Bush, M. B., Steinitz-Kannan, M., and Miller, M. C. (1997). Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon. Quaternary Research 48: 69–78.
Comte, D., and Pardo, M. (1991). Reappraisal of great historical earthquakes in the northern Chile and southern Peru seismic gaps. Natural Hazards 4: 23–44.
Contreras, D. A. (2007). Sociopolitical and Geomorphologic Dynamism at Chavín de Huántar, Peru, Ph.D. dissertation, Anthropological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Contreras, D. A. (2008). Geomorfología y paisaje en Chavín de Huántar. In Museo Nacional Chavín, Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru, pp. 50–59.
Cooke, C. A., Abbott, M. B., and Wolfe, A. P. (2008). Late-Holocene atmospheric lead deposition in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes. The Holocene 18(2): 353–359.
Cooke, C. A., Balcom, P. H., Biester, H., and Wolfe, A. P. (2009). Over three millennia of mercury pollution in the Peruvian Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 8830–8834.
Coombes, P., and Barber, K. (2005). Environmental determinism in Holocene research: Causality or coincidence? Area 37: 303–311.
Costanza, R., Graumlich, L., Steffen, W., Crumley, C., Dearing, J., Hibbard, K., Leemans, R., Redman, C., and Schimel, D. (2007). Sustainability or collapse: What can we learn from integrating the history of humans and the rest of nature? AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 36: 522–527.
Covey, R. A. (2006). How the Incas Built their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Craig, A. K. (1985). Cis-Andean environmental transects: Late Quaternary ecology of northern and southern Peru. In Masuda, S., Shimada, I., and Morris, C. (eds.), Andean Ecology and Civilization: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 23–44.
Craig, A. K., and Shimada, I. (1986). El Nino flood deposits at Batan Grande, northern Peru. Geoarchaeology 1: 29–38.
Cross, S. L., Baker, P. A., Seltzer, G. O., Fritz, S. C., and Dunbar, R. B. (2001). Late Quaternary climate and hydrology of tropical South America inferred from an isotopic and chemical model of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia and Peru. Quaternary Research 56: 1–9.
Cuadra, C., Karkee, M. B., and Tokeshi, K. (2008). Earthquake risk to Inca’s historical constructions in Machupicchu. Advances in Engineering Software 39: 336–345.
de Silva, S., Alzueta, J., and Salas, G. (2000). The socioeconomic consequences of the A.D. 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina, southern Peru. In McCoy, F. W., and Heiken, G. (eds.), Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity, The Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, pp. 15–24.
Degg, M. R., and Chester, D. K. (2005). Seismic and volcanic hazards in Peru: changing attitudes to disaster mitigation. The Geographical Journal 171: 125–145.
deMenocal, P. B. (2001). Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene. Science 292: 667–673.
Denevan, W. M. (1970). Aboriginal drained-field cultivation in the Americas: Pre-Columbian reclamation of wet lands was widespread in the savannas and highlands of Latin America. Science 169: 647–654.
Denevan, W. M. (1992). The pristine myth: The landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82: 369–385.
Denevan, W. M. (2001). Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Denevan, W. M., Mathewson, K., and Knapp, G. (eds.) (1987). Pre-Hispanic Agricultural Fields in the Andean Region, BAR International Series 359, Achaeopress, Oxford.
DeVries, T. J., Ortlieb, L., Diaz, A., and Wells, L. (1997). Determining the early history of El Niño. Science 276: 965–965.
Diamond, J. (1995). Easter’s end. Discover 16(8): 63–69.
Dick, R. P., Sandor, J. A., and Eash, N. S. (1994). Soil enzyme activities after 1500 years of terrace agriculture in the Colca Valley, Peru. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 50: 123–131.
Dillehay, T. D., and Kolata, A. L. (2004). Long-term human response to uncertain environmental conditions in the Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 4325–4330.
Dillehay, T. D., Kolata, A. L., and Pino, Q. M. (2004). Pre-industrial human and environment interactions in northern Peru during the late Holocene. The Holocene 14: 272–281.
Dillehay, T. D., Eling, H. H., Jr., and Rossen, J. (2005). Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 17241–17244.
Dollfus, O. (1982). Development of land-use patterns in the central Andes. Mountain Research and Development 2(1): 39–48.
Dollfus, O., and Lavallee, D. (1973). Ecología y ocupación del espacio en los andes tropicales durante los ultimos veinte milenios. Bulletin de L’Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines II(3): 75–92.
Dorbath, L., Cisternas, A., and Dorbath, C. (1990). Assessment of the size of large and great historical earthquakes in Peru. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 80: 551–576.
Druss, M. (1987). Uncertainty in the Andes: Coastal environmental change and land use patterns. In Browman, D. L. (ed.), Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 251–269.
Duviols, P. (1984). Albornoz y el espacio ritual andino prehispánico. Revista Andina 2: 169–222.
Eitel, B., Hecht, S., Mächtle, B., Schukraft, G., Kadereit, A., Wagner, G. A., Kromer, B., Unkel, I., and Reindel, M. (2004). Geoarchaeological evidence from desert loess in the Nazca-Palpa region, southern Peru: Palaeoenvironmental changes and their impact on pre-Columbian cultures. Archaeometry 47: 137–158.
Eling, H. H., Jr. (1986). Pre-hispanic irrigation sources and systems in the Jequetepeque Valley, northern Peru. In Matos, M. R., Turpin, S. A., and Eling, H. H., Jr. (eds.), Andean Archaeology: Papers in Memory of Clifford Evans, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 130–148.
Eling, H. H., Jr. (1987). The Role of Irrigation Networks in Emerging Complexity during Late Prehispanic Times: Jequetepeque Valley, North Coast, Peru, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.
Ellenberg, H. (1979). Man’s influence on tropical mountain ecosystems in South America. Journal of Ecology 67: 401–416.
Erickson, C. (1992). Prehistoric landscape management in the Andean highlands: Raised field agriculture and its environmental impact. Population & Environment 13: 285–300.
Erickson, C. (1999). Neo-environmental determinism and agrarian “collapse” in Andean prehistory. Antiquity 73: 634–642.
Erickson, C. L. (2000). The Lake Titicaca Basin. In Lentz, D. L. (ed.), Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolumbian Americas, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 311–356.
Fairley, J. P., Jr. (2003). Geological water storage in pre-Columbian Peru. Latin American Antiquity 14: 193–206.
Farber, D. L., Hancock, G. S., Finkel, R. C., and Rodbell, D. T. (2005). The age and extent of tropical alpine glaciation in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Journal of Quaternary Science 207: 759–776.
Farrington, I. S. (1980). The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special reference to Peru. World Archaeology 11: 287–305.
Farrington, I. S. (1992). Ritual geography, settlement patterns and the characterization of the provinces of the Inka heartland. World Archaeology 23: 368–385.
Fisher, C. T., and Feinman, G. M. (2005). Introduction to “Landscapes over Time.” American Anthropologist 107: 62–69.
Fisher, C. T., and Thurston, T. L. (1999). Special section: Dynamic landscapes and sociopolitical process: the topography of anthropogenic environments in global perspective. Antiquity 73: 630–631.
Fjeldså, J. (2002). Polylepis forests: Vestiges of a vanishing ecosystem in the Andes. Ecotropica 8: 111–123.
Flannery, K. V. (1972). The cultural evolution of civilizations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3: 399–426.
Flores Ochoa, J. A. (1987). Cultivation in the qocha of the South Andean puna. In Browman, D. L. (ed.), Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 271–296.
Fontugne, M., Usselman, P., Lavallée, D., Julien, M., and Hatté, C. (1999). El Niño variability in the coastal desert of southern Peru during the Mid-Holocene. Quaternary Research 52: 171–179.
Ford, J. A., and Willey, G. (1949). Surface Survey of the Viru Valley, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
French, C. (2007). Sustaining past and modern landscape systems in semi-arid lands. In Wilson, L., Dickinson, P., and Jeandron, J. (eds.), Reconstructing Human-Landscape Interactions, Cambridge Scholars, Cambridge, pp. 252–272.
Gade, D. W. (1996). Carl Troll on nature and culture in the Andes. Erdkunde 50: 301–316.
Garcia-Herrera, R., Diaz, H. F., Garcia, R. R., Prieto, M. R., Barriopedro, D., Moyano, R., and Hernández, E. (2008). A chronology of El Niño events from primary documentary sources in northern Peru. Journal of Climate 21: 1948–1962.
Glowacki, M., and Malpass, M. A. (2003). Water, huacas, and ancestor worship: Traces of a sacred Wari landscape. Latin American Antiquity 14: 431–448.
Glynn, P. W. (1988). El Nino-Southern Oscillation 1982–1983: Nearshore population, community, and ecosystem responses. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19: 309–346.
Golte, J. (1980). Notas sobre la agricultura de riego en la costa peruana. Allpanchis 15: 57–67.
Goodman-Elgar, M. (2008). Evaluating soil resilience in long-term cultivation: A study of pre-Columbian terraces from the Paca Valley, Peru. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 3072–3086.
Goodman-Elgar, M. (2009). Places to partake: Chicha in the Andean landscape. In Jennings, J., and Bowser, B. (eds.), Drink, Power, and Society in the Andes, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, pp. 75–107.
Gose, P. (1993). Segmentary state formation and the ritual control of water under the Incas. Comparative Studies in Society and History 35: 480–514.
Graf, K. (1981). Palynological investigations of two post-Glacial peat bogs near the boundary of Bolivia and Peru. Journal of Biogeography 8: 353–368.
Graffam, G. (1992). Beyond state collapse: Rural history, raised fields, and pastoralism in the South Andes. American Anthropologist 94: 882–904.
Grodzicki, J. (1990). Las catástrofes ecológicas en la Pampa de Nazca a fines del Holoceno y el fenómeno “El Niño.” In Grodzicki, J. (ed.), El fenómeno el niño: a través de las fuentes arqueológicas y geológicas: Actas de la Conferencia en Varsovia, 18-19 de mayo 1990, Misión Arqueológica Andina, Instituto de Arqueología, Universidad de Varsovia, Warsaw, pp. 64–102.
Grosjean, M., and Nuñez, A. L. (1994). Late glacial, early and middle holocene environments, human occupation, and resource use in the Atacama (northern Chile). Geoarchaeology 9: 271–286.
Grosjean, M., Nuñez, L., Cartajena, I., and Messerli, B. (1997). Mid-Holocene climate and culture change in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile. Quaternary Research 48: 239–246.
Grosjean, M., van Leeuwen, J. F. N., van der Knaap, W. O., Geyh, M. A., Ammann, B., Tanner, W., Messerli, B., Núñez, L. A., Valero-Garcés, B. L., and Veit, H. (2001). A 22,000 14C year BP sediment and pollen record of climate change from Laguna Miscanti (23ºS), northern Chile. Global and Planetary Change 28: 35–51.
Grosjean, M., Cartajena, I., Geyh, M. A., and Nuñez, L. (2003). From proxy data to paleoclimate interpretation: The mid-Holocene paradox of the Atacama Desert, northern Chile. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 247–258.
Grosjean, M., Santoro, C. M., Thompson, L. G., Nuñez, L., and Standen, V. G. (2007). Mid-Holocene climate and culture change in the south central Andes. In Anderson, D. G., Maasch, K. A., and Sandweiss, D. H. (eds.), Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics: A Global Perspective on Mid-Holocene Transitions, Academic Press, London, pp. 51–115.
Guaman Poma de Ayala, F. (1616). The Guaman Poma website: A digital research center of the Royal Library, Copenhagen, Denmark (http://www.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/info/en/frontpage.htm, accessed 2008).
Guillet, D. (1983). Toward a cultural ecology of mountains: The central Andes and the Himalayas compared. Current Anthropology 24: 561–561.
Haas, J., and Creamer, W. (2006). Crucible of Andean civilization: The Peruvian coast from 3000 to 1800 BC. Current Anthropology 47: 745–775.
Hall, M. L., and Mothes, P. A. (2008). Volcanic impediments in the progressive development of pre-Columbian civilizations in the Ecuadorian Andes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176: 344–355.
Hansen, B. C., and Rodbell, D. T. (1995). A Late-Glacial/Holocene pollen record from the eastern Andes of northern Peru. Quaternary Research 44: 216–227.
Hansen, B. C., Wright, H. E. Jr., and Bradbury, J. P. (1984). Pollen studies in the Junín area, central Peruvian Andes. Geological Society of American Bulletin 95: 1454–1465.
Hansen, B. C., Seltzer, G. O., and Wright, H. E. (1994). Late Quaternary vegetational change in the central Peruvian Andes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109: 263–285.
Hansen, B. C., Rodbell, D. T., Seltzer, G. O., Leon, B., Young, K. R., and Abbott, M. B. (2003). Late-glacial and Holocene vegetational history from two sites in the western Cordillera of southwestern Ecuador. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 79–108.
Hardesty, D. (2007). Perspectives on global-change archaeology. American Anthropologist 109: 1–7.
Hastings, C. M. (1987). Implications of Andean verticality in the evolution of political complexity: A view from the margins. In Haas, J., Pozorski, S., and Pozorski, T. (eds.), The Origins and Development of the Andean State, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 145–157.
Hastorf, C. A. (1990). The ecosystem model and long-term prehistoric change: An example from the Andes. In Moran, E. F. (ed.), The Ecosystem Approach in Anthropology: From Concept to Practice, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 131–157.
Hayashida, F. (2005). Archaeology, ecological history, and conservation. Annual Review of Anthropology 34: 43–65.
Hayashida, F. (2006). The Pampa de Chaparrí: Water, land, and politics on the north coast of Peru. Latin American Antiquity 17: 243–263.
Hesse, R. (2008). Fluvial Dynamics and Cultural Landscape Evolution in the Río Grande de Nazca Drainage Basin, Southern Peru, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Hesse, R., and Baade, J. (2009). Irrigation agriculture and the sedimentary record in the Palpa Valley, southern Peru. Catena 77: 119–129.
Hocquenghem, A.-M., and Ortlieb, L. (1992). Historical record of El Niño events in Peru (XVI–XVIII centuries): The Quinn et al. (1987) chronology revisited. In Ortlieb, L., and Macharé, J. (eds.), “Paleo ENSO Records” International Symposium (Lima, March 1992), Extended Abstracts, ORSTOM - CONCYTEC, Lima, Peru, pp. 143–149.
Hodder, I. (1987). Converging traditions: The search for symbolic meanings in archaeology and geography. In Wagstaff, J. M. (ed.), Landscape and Culture: Geographical and Archaeological Perspectives, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 134–145.
Huckleberry, G., and Billman, B. R. (2003). Geoarchaeological insights gained from surficial geologic mapping, middle Moche Valley, Peru. Geoarchaeology 18: 505–521.
Huertas Vallejos, L. (1987). Ecología e historia: probanzas de indios y españoles referentes a las catastróficas lluvias de 1578 en los corregimientos de Trujillo y Saña, CES Solidaridad, Chiclayo, Peru.
Huertas Vallejos, L. (2001). Diluvios Andinos a través de las fuentes documentales, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.
Inbar, M., and Llerena, C. A. (2000). Erosion processes in high mountain agricultural tyerraces in Peru. Mountain Research and Development 20: 72–79.
Ingold, T. (2000). The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling, and Skill, Routledge, New York.
Isbell, W. H., and McEwan, G. F. (eds.) (1991). Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Jaksic, F. M. (2001). Ecological effects of El Niño in terrestrial ecosystems of western South America. Ecography 24: 241–250.
Janusek, J. W. (2005). Collapse as cultural revolution: Power and identity in the Tiwanaku to Pacajes transition. In Vaughn, K. J., Ogburn, D., and Conlee, C. A. (eds.), Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, American Anthropological Association, Arlington, VA, pp. 175–209.
Janusek, J. W., and Kolata, A. L. (2004). Top-down or bottom-up: rural settlement and raised field agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin, Bolivia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23: 404–430.
Jennings, J. (2003). Inca imperialism, ritual change, and cosmological continuity in the Cotahuasi Valley of Peru. Journal of Anthropological Research 59: 433–462.
Jennings, J. (2008). Catastrophe, revitalization and religious change on the prehispanic North Coast of Peru. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 18: 177–194.
Jochim, M. (1990). The ecosystem concept in archaeology. In Moran, E. F. (ed.), The Ecosystem Approach in Anthropology: From Concept to Practice, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 75–90.
Johannessen, S., and Hastorf, C. A. (1990). A history of fuel management (A.D. 500 to the present) in the Mantaro Valley, Peru. Journal of Ethnobiology 10: 61–90.
Keefer, D. K., and Moseley, M. E. (2004). Southern Peru desert shattered by the great 2001 earthquake: Implications for paleoseismic and paleo-El Niño/Southern Oscillation records. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 10878–10883.
Keefer, D. K., deFrance, S. D., Moseley, M. E., Richardson, J. B. III, Satterlee, D. R., and Day-Lewis, A. (1998). Early maritime economy and El Niño events at Quebrada Tacahuay, Peru. Science 281: 1833–1835.
Keefer, D. K., Moseley, M. E., and deFrance, S. D. (2003). A 38000-year record of floods and debris flows in the Ilo region of southern Peru and its relation to El Nino events and great earthquakes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 41–77.
Kemp, R., Branch, N., Silva, B., Meddens, F., Williams, A., Kendall, A., and Vivanco, C. (2006). Pedosedimentary, cultural and environmental significance of paleosols within pre-hispanic agricultural terraces in the southern Peruvian Andes. Quaternary International 158: 13–22.
Kessler, M. (2002). The “Polylepis problem”: Where do we stand? Ecotropica 8: 97–110.
Kirch, P. V. (1997). Microcosmic histories: Island perspectives on “global” change. American Anthropologist 99: 30–42.
Kirch, P. V. (2005). Archaeology and global change: The Holocene record. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 409–440.
Knapp, G. (1982). Prehistoric flood management on the Peruvian Coast: Reinterpreting the “sunken fields” of Chilca. American Antiquity 47: 144–154.
Kolata, A. L. (1991). The technology and organization of agricultural production in the Tiwanaku state. Latin American Antiquity 2: 99–125.
Kolata, A. L. (1993). The Tiwanaku, Blackwell, Cambridge.
Kolata, A. L. (2000). Environmental thresholds and the ‘natural history’ of an Andean civilization. In Bawden, G., and Reycraft, R. M. (eds.), Environmental Disaster and the Archeology of Human Response, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 163–178.
Kolata, A. L., and Ortloff, C. R. (1996). Agroecological perspectives on the decline of the Tiwanaku state. In Kolata, A. L. (ed.), Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 1: Agroecology, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 181–202.
Kolata, A. L., Binford, M. W., Brenner, M., Janusek, J. W., and Ortloff, C. (2000). Environmental thresholds and the empirical reality of state collapse: A response to Erickson. Antiquity 74: 424–426.
Kornbacher, K. D. (1999). Cultural elaboration in prehistoric coastal Peru: An example of evolution in a temporally variable environment. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18: 282–318.
Kosok, P. (1965). Life, Land and Water in Ancient Peru, Long Island University Press, New York.
Kovach, R. L. (2004). Early Earthquakes of the Americas, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Krech, S. I. (1999). The Ecological Indian, Norton, New York.
Krech, S. I. (2005). Reflections on conservation, sustainability, and environmentalism in indigenous North America. American Anthropologist 107: 78–86.
Kroeber, A. L. (1927). Coast and highland in prehistoric Peru. American Anthropologist 29: 625–653.
Kulikov, E. A., Ravinovich, A. B., and Thomson, R. E. (2005). Estimation of tsunami risk for the coasts of Peru and northern Chile. Natural Hazards 35: 185–209.
Kus, J. S. (1984). The Chicama-Moche canal: Failure or success? An alternative explanation for an incomplete canal. American Antiquity 49: 408–415.
Laegaard, S. (1992). Influence of fire in the grass páramo vegetation of Ecuador. In Balslev, H., and Luteyn, J. L. (eds.), Páramo: An Andean Ecosystem under Human Influence, Academic Press, London, pp. 151–170.
Lane, K. (2006). Through the looking glass: Re-assessing the role of agro-pastoralism in the north-central Andean highlands. World Archaeology 38: 493–510.
Lane, K. (2009). Engineered highlands: The social organization of water in the ancient north central Andes (A.D. 1000–1480). World Archaeology 41: 169–190.
Lavallee, D. (1982). Telarmachay: niveles precerámicos de ocupación. Revista del Museo Nacional 46: 55–127.
Lentz, D. J. (ed.) (2000). An Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolombian Americas, Columbia University Press, New York.
Lockridge, P. A. (1985). Tsunamis in Peru-Chile, Report SE-39, World Data Center for Solid Earth Geophysics, Boulder, CO.
Lowe, J. J., and Walker, M. J. (1997). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments, Addison Wesley Longman, Essex, UK.
Lumbreras, L. G. (1993). Chavín de Huántar: excavaciones en la Galería de las Ofrendas, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, Germany.
Lumbreras, L. G., and Chacho Lieataer, B. (1976). Acerca de la función del sistema hidraúlico de Chavín, Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología, Lima, Peru.
Lynch, T. F. (1967). Quishqui Puncu: A preceramic site in highland Peru. Science 158: 780–783.
Lynch, T. F. (1971). Preceramic transhumance in the Callejon de Huaylas, Peru. American Antiquity 36: 139–148.
Lynch, T. F. (1980). Guitarrero Cave: Early Man in the Andes, Academic Press, New York.
Lynch, T. F. (1990). Quaternary climate, environment, and the human occupation of the south-central Andes. Geoarchaeology 5: 199–228.
Macharé, J., and Ortlieb, L. (1993). Registros del fenómeno El Niño en el Perú. Bulletin de L’Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines 22: 35–52.
MacNeish, R. S. (1979). The early man remains from Pikimachay Cave, Ayacucho Basin, highland Peru. In Humphrey, R. L., and Stanford, D. (eds.), Pre-Llano Cultures of the Americas: Paradoxes and Possibilities, Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington, DC, pp. 1–48.
MacNeish, R., Vierra, R., Nelken-Terner, A., Lurie, R., and García-Cook, A. (1983). Prehistory of the Ayachucho Basin, Peru, Volume IV: The Preceramic Way of Life, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Magilligan, F. J., and Goldstein, P. S. (2001). El Niño floods and culture change: A late Holocene flood history for the Rio Moquegua, southern Peru. Geology 29: 431–434.
Mann, C. C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus, Vintage Books, New York.
Manners, R. B., Magilligan, F. J., and Goldstein, P. S. (2007). Floodplain development, El Niño, and cultural consequences in a hyperarid Andean environment. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 97: 229–249.
Marchant, M., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G. (1999). High resolution planktic foraminiferal record of the last 13,300 years from the upwelling area off Chile. Marine Geology 161: 115–128.
Marchant, R., Hooghiemstra, H., and Islebe, G. (2004). The rise and fall of Peruvian and Central American civilizations: Interconnections with Holocene climatic change—a necessarily complex model. In Yasuda, Y., and Shinde, V. (eds.), Monsoons and Civilization, Roli Books, New Delhi, pp. 351–376.
Markgraf, V. (1989). Palaeoclimates in Central and South America since 18,000 B.P. based on pollen and lake-level records. Quaternary Science Reviews 8: 1–24.
Markgraf, V. (ed.) (2001). Interhemispheric Climate Linkages, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Masse, W. B., and Masse, M. J. (2007). Myth and catastrophic reality: Using myth to identify cosmic impacts and massive Plinian eruptions in Holocene South America. In Piccardi, L., and Masse, W. B. (eds.), Myth and Geology, Geological Society of London, London, pp. 177–202.
Masuda, S., Shimada, I., and Morris, C. (eds.) (1985). Andean Ecology and Civilization: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Mathewson, K. (1986). Alexander von Humboldt and the origins of landscape archaeology. Journal of Geography 85: 50–56.
Mayer, E. (1979). Land-Use in the Andes: Ecology and Agriculture in the Mantaro Valley of Peru with Special Reference to Potatoes, Centro Internacional de la Papa, Lima, Peru.
McEwan, C., and Delgado-Espinoza, F. (2008). Late pre-Hispanic polities of coastal Ecuador. In Silverman, H., and Isbell, W. H. (eds.), Handbook of South American Archaeology, Springer, New York, pp. 505–525.
McGlade, J. (1995). Archaeology and the ecodynamics of human-modified landscapes. Antiquity 68: 113–132.
Meddens, F. M., Branch, N. P., Vivanco Pomacanchari, C., Riddiford, N., and Kemp, R. (2008). High altitude ushnu platforms in the Department of Ayacucho Peru, structure, ancestors and animating essence. In Staller, J. (ed.), Pre-Columbian Landscapes of Creation and Origin, Springer, New York, pp. 315–355.
Mitchell, W. P., and Guillet, D. (1994). Irrigation at High Altitudes: The Social Organization of Water Control Systems in the Andes, American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.
Moore, J. D. (1988). Prehistoric raised field agriculture in the Casma Valley, Peru. Journal of Field Archaeology 15: 265–276.
Moore, J. D. (1991). Cultural responses to environmental catastrophes: Post-El Niño subsistence on the prehistoric north coast of Peru. Latin American Antiquity 2: 27–47.
Moore, J. D. (2004). The social basis of sacred spaces in the prehispanic Andes: Ritual landscapes of the dead in Chimú and Inka societies. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11: 83–124.
Moore, J. D. (2005). Cultural Landscapes in the Ancient Andes, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Moseley, M. E. (1969). Assessing the archaeological significance of mahamaes. American Antiquity 34: 485–487.
Moseley, M. E. (1975). The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization, Cummings, Menlo Park, CA.
Moseley, M. E. (1983). The good old days were better: Agrarian collapse and tectonics. American Anthropologist 85: 773–799.
Moseley, M. E. (1990). Structure and history in the dynastic lore of Chimor. In Moseley, M. E., and Cordy-Collins, A. (eds.), The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 1–41.
Moseley, M. E. (1997). Climate, culture, and punctuated change: New data, new challenges. The Review of Archaeology 15: 19–27.
Moseley, M. E. (1999). Convergent catastrophe: Past patterns and future implications of collateral natural disasters in the Andes. In Oliver-Smith, A., and Hoffman, S. M. (eds.), The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspective, Routledge, New York, pp. 59–72.
Moseley, M. E. (2002). Modeling protracted drought, collateral natural disaster, and human responses in the Andes. In Hoffman, S. M., and Oliver-Smith, A. (eds.), Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 187–212.
Moseley, M. E., and Deeds, E. E. (1982). The land in front of Chan Chan: Agrarian expansion, reform, and collapse in the Moche Valley. In Moseley, M. E., and Day, K. C. (eds.), Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 25–53.
Moseley, M. E., Feldman, R. A., and Ortloff, C. R. (1981). Living with crises: Human perception of process and time. In Nitecki, M. H. (ed.), Biotic Crises in Ecological and Evolutionary Time, Academic Press, New York, pp. 231–267.
Moseley, M. E., Feldman, R. A., Ortloff, C. R., and Narvaez, A. (1983). Principles of agrarian collapse in the Cordillera Negra, Peru. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 52: 299–327.
Moy, C. M., Seltzer, G. O., Rodbell, D. T., and Anderson, D. M. (2002). Variability of El Nino/Southern Oscillation activity at millenial timescales during the Holocene epoch. Nature 420: 162–165.
Murra, J. V. (1972). El “control vertical” de un máximo de pisos ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas. In Murra, J. (ed.), Visita de la Provincia de Leon de Huánuco en 1562, Universidad Nacional Hermilio Valdizan, Huánuco, Peru, pp. 427–476.
Murra, J. V. (1985a). “El archipélago vertical” revisited. In Masuda, S., Shimada, I., and Morris, C. (eds.), Andean Ecology and Civilization, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 3–13.
Murra, J. V. (1985b). The limits and limitations of the “vertical archipelago” in the Andes. In Masuda, S., Shimada, I., and Morris, C. (eds.), Andean Ecology and Civilization, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 15–20.
Negendank, J. F. (2004). The Holocene: Considerations with regard to its climate and climate archives. In Fischer, H., Kumke, T., Lohmann, G., Flöser, G., Miller, H., von Storch, H., and Negendank, J. F. (eds.), The Climate in Historical Times: Towards a Synthesis of Holocene Proxy Data and Climate Models, Springer, Berlin, pp. 1–12.
Netherly, P. J. (1984). The management of late Andean irrigation systems on the north coast of Peru. American Antiquity 49: 227–254.
Nials, F. L., Deeds, E. E., Moseley, M. E., Pozorski, S. G., Pozorski, T. G., and Feldman, R. (1979). El Niño: The catastrophic flooding of coastal Peru: A complex of oceanographic and meteorologic factors combine in one of Earth’s most devastating, recurrent disasters. Field Museum Bulletin 50: 4–14, 4–10.
Niederer, C. G. (1990). Ritual and Water in Inca Architecture, M.A. thesis, Department of Architecture, University of California, Berkeley.
Nordt, L., Hayashida, F., Hallmark, T., and Crawford, C. (2004). Late prehistoric soil fertility, irrigation management, and agricultural production in northwest coastal Peru. Geoarchaeology 19: 21–46.
Nuñez, L., Grosjean, M., and Cartajena, I. (2001). Human dimensions of late Pleistocene/Holocene arid events in southern South America. In Markgraf, V. (ed.), Interhemispheric Climate Linkages, Academic Press, New York, pp. 105–118.
Nuñez, L., Grosjean, M., and Cartajena, I. (2002). Human occupations and climate change in the puna de Atacama, Chile. Science 298: 821–824.
Ojeda Enríquez, B. (1987). Agricultural technology of the hoyas of Chilca, central Peruvian coast. In Browman, D. L. (ed.), Arid Land Use Strategies and Risk Management in the Andes, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 207–224.
Oliver-Smith, A. (1986). The Martyred City: Death and Rebirth in the Andes, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Oliver-Smith, A., and Hoffman, S. M. (eds.) (1999). The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspective, Routledge, New York.
Onuki, Y. (1982). Una perspectiva prehistórica de la utilización ambiental en la sierra nor-central de los Andes centrales. In Millones, L., and Tomoeda, H. (eds.), El hombre y su ambiente en los AndescCentrales, Senri Ethnological Studies, Tokyo, pp. 211–228.
Onuki, Y. (ed.) (1995). Kuntur Wasi y Cerro Blanco: dos sitios del formativo en el norte del Perú, Hokusen-sha, Tokyo.
Orlove, B. S., Chiang, J. C., and Cane, M. A. (2000). Forecasting Andean rainfall and crop yield from the influence of El Niño on Pleiades visibility. Nature 403: 68–71.
Ortlieb, L. (2000). The documented historical record of El Niño events in Peru: An update of the Quinn record (sixteenth through nineteenth centuries). In Diaz, H. F., and Markgraf, V. (eds.), El Niño and the Southern Oscillation: Multiscale Variability and Global and Regional Impacts, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 207–296.
Ortlieb, L., and Macharé, J. (1993). Former El Niño events: Records from western South America. Global and Planetary Change 7: 181–202.
Ortloff, C. R., and Kolata, A. L. (1993). Climate and collapse: Agro-ecological perspectives on the decline of the Tiwanaku state. Journal of Archaeological Science 20: 195–221.
Ortloff, C. R., Moseley, M. E., and Feldman, R. A. (1983). The Chicama-Moche intervalley canal: Social explanations and physical paradigms. American Antiquity 48: 375–389.
Osborn, A. (1977). Strandloopers, mermaids, and other fairy tales: Ecological determinants of marine resource utilization-the Peruvian case. In Binford, L. R. (ed.), For Theory Building in Archaeology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 157–203.
Paduano, G. M., Bush, M. B., Baker, P. A., Fritz, S. C., and Seltzer, G. O. (2003). A vegetation and fire history of Lake Titicaca since the Last Glacial Maximum. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 259–279.
Park, C. C. (1983). Water resources and irrigation agriculture in pre-Hispanic Peru. The Geographical Journal 149: 153–166.
Parsons, J. J. (1969). Ridged fields in the Río Guayas Valley, Ecuador. American Antiquity 34: 76–80.
Parsons, J. J. (1985). Raised field farmers as pre-Columbian landscape engineers: Looking north from the San Jorge (Colombia). In Farrington, I. S. (ed.), Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Tropics, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp. 149–165.
Parsons, J. R. (1968). The archaeological significance of mahamaes cultivation on the coast of Peru. American Antiquity 33: 80–85.
Parsons, J. R., and Psuty, N. P. (1975). Sunken fields and prehispanic subsistence on the Peruvian coast. American Antiquity 40: 259–282.
Parsons, J. R., Hastings, C. M., and Mendieta, R. M. (2001). Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in the Upper Mantaro and Tarma Drainages, Junin, Peru, Memoirs No. 34, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Parsons, M. H. (1970). Preceramic subsistence on the Peruvian coast. American Antiquity 35: 292–304.
Paulsen, A. C. (1976). Environment and empire: Climatic factors in prehistoric Andean culture change. World Archaeology 8: 121–132.
Peeples, M. A., Barton, C. M., and Schmich, S. (2006). Resilience lost: Intersecting land use and landscape dynamics in the prehistoric southwestern United States. Ecology and Society 11: 22–22.
Petersen, G. (1985). Cumbemayo: acueducto arqueológico que cruza la divisoria continental. In Silva Santisteban, F., Espinoza Soriano, W., and Ravines, R. (eds.), Historia de Cajamarca. I: Arqueología, Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru, pp. 97–100.
Piovano, E. L., Villalba, R., and Leroy, S. A. (2006). Holocene environmental catastrophes in South America: From the lowlands to the Andes. Quaternary International 158: 1–3.
Plafker, G., and Ericksen, G. E. (1978). Nevado Huascarán avalanches, Peru. In Voight, B. (ed.), Rockslides and Avalanches I, Natural Phenomena, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 277–314.
Plafker, G., Ericksen, G. E., and Fernández Concha, J. (1971). Geological aspects of the May 31, 1970, Peru earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 61: 543–578.
Pozorski, T., and Pozorski, S. (1982). Reassessing the Chicama-Moche intervalley canal. American Antiquity 47: 851–868.
Pozorski, T., Pozorski, S., Mackey, C. J., and Klymyshyn, A. M. (1983). Pre-Hispanic ridged fields of the Casma Valley, Peru. The Geographical Review 73: 407–416.
Preucel, R. W., and Hodder, I. (eds.) (1996). Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: A Reader, Blackwell, Malden, MA.
Price, B. J. (1971). Prehispanic irrigation agriculture in nuclear America. Latin American Research Review 6(3): 3–60.
Pulgar Vidal, J. (1981). Geografía del Perú: las ocho regiones naturales del Perú, Editorial Universo, Lima, Peru.
Quilter, J., and Stocker, T. (1983). Subsistence economies and the origins of Andean complex societies. American Anthropologist 85: 545–563.
Quilter, J., Ojeda, E. B., Pearsall, D. M., Sandweiss, D. H., Jones, J. G., and Wing, E. S. (1991). Subsistence economy of El Paraiso, an early Peruvian site. Science 251: 277–283.
Quinn, W. H., Neal, V. T., and Antunez de Mayolo, S. E. (1987). El Nino occurrences over the past four and a half centuries. Journal of Geophysical Research 92(C13): 14449–14461.
Ramirez, E., Hoffman, G., Taupin, J. D., Francou, B., Ribstein, P., Caillon, N., Ferron, F. A., Landais, A., Petit, J. R., Pouyaud, B., Schotterer, U., Simoes, J. C., and Stievenard, M. (2003). A new Andean deep ice core from Nevado Illlimani (6350 m), Bolivia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 212: 337–350.
Ramírez, S. E. (1996). The World Upside Down: Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict in Sixteenth-Century Peru, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Raymond, J. S. (1981). The maritime foundation of Andean civilization: A reconsideration of the evidence. American Antiquity 46: 806–821.
Redman, C. L. (1999). Human Impact on Ancient Environments, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Redman, C. L. (2005). Resilience theory in archaeology. American Anthropologist 107: 70–77.
Redman, C. L., and Kinzig, A. P. (2003). Resilience of past landscapes: Resilience theory, society, and the longue durée. Conservation Ecology 7: 14.
Redman, C. L., James, S. R., Fish, P. R., and Rogers, J. D. (eds.) (2004). The Archaeology of Global Change: The Impact of Humans on Their Environment, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Rein, B., Lückge, A., Reinhardt, L., Sirocko, F., Wolf, A., and Dullo, W.-C. (2005). El Niño variability off Peru during the last 20,000 years. Paleoceanography 20: 10.1029/2004PA001099.
Reinhard, J. (1985a). Chavín and Tiahuanaco: A new look at two Andean ceremonial centers. National Geographic Research Review 1: 395–422.
Reinhard, J. (1985b). Sacred mountains: An ethno-archaeological study of high Andean ruins. Mountain Research and Development 5: 299–317.
Reinhard, J., and Ceruti, C. (2005). Sacred mountains, ceremonial sites, and human sacrifice among the Incas. Archaeoastronomy XIX: 1–43.
Reitz, E. J. (2001). Fishing in Peru between 10000 and 3750 B.P. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 11: 163–171.
Reitz, E. J., and Sandweiss, D. H. (2001). Environmental change at Ostra base camp, a Peruvian pre-ceramic site. Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 1085–1100.
Reycraft, R. M. (2000). Long-term human response to El Niño in south coastal Peru, circa A.D. 1400. In Bawden, G., and Reycraft, R. M. (eds.), Environmental Disaster and the Archaeology of Human Response, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, pp. 99–120.
Richardson, J. B., III (1981). Modeling the development of sedentary maritime economies on the coast of Peru: A preliminary statement. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 50: 139-149.
Richerson, P. J. (1993). Humans as a component of the Lake Titicaca ecosystem: A model system for the study of environmental deterioration. In McDonnell, M. J., and Pickett, S. T. (eds.), Humans as Components of Ecosystems: The Ecology of Subtle Human Effects and Populated Areas, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 125–140.
Rick, J. W. (1980). Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes, Academic Press, New York.
Rick, J. W. (1983). Cronología, clima y subsistencia en el precerámico peruano, Ediciones INDEA, Lima, Peru.
Rick, J. W. (2005). The evolution of authority and power at Chavín de Huántar, Peru. In Vaughn, K. J., Ogburn, D., and Conlee, C. A. (eds.), Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 71–89.
Rick, J. W. (2008). Context, construction and ritual in the development of authority at Chavín de Huántar. In Conklin, W. J., and Quilter, J. (eds.), Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 3–34.
Rick, J. W., and Contreras, D. A. (2006). “Natural sources of power and emerging authority at Chavín de Huántar.” Paper presented at the 71st annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Rigsby, C. A., Baker, P. A., and Aldenderfer, M. S. (2003). Fluvial history of the Río Ilave valley, Peru, and its relationship to climate and human history. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 165–185.
Roberts, N. (1998). The Holocene: An Environmental History, Blackwell, Malden, MA.
Rodbell, D. T., Seltzer, G. O., Anderson, D. M., Abbott, M. B., Enfield, D. B., and Newman, J. H. (1999). An ~15,000-year record of El Nino-driven alluviation in southwestern Ecuador. Science 283: 516–520.
Rodbell, D. T., Bagnato, S., Nebolini, J. C., Seltzer, G. O., and Abbott, M. B. (2002). A late Glacial–Holocene tephrochronology for glacial lakes in southern Ecuador. Quaternary Research 57: 343–354.
Rodríguez, R., Woodman, R., Balsley, B., Mabres, A., and Phipps, R. (1993). Avances sobre estudios dendrocronológicos en la región costera norte del Perú para obtener un registro pasado del fenómeno El Niño. Bulletin de L’Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines 22: 267–281.
Rollins, H. B., Richardson, J. B., III, and Sandweiss, D. H. (1986). The birth of El Niño: Geoarchaeological evidence and implications. Geoarchaeology 1: 3–15.
Rowe, H. D., Dunbar, R. B., Mucciarone, D. A., Seltzer, G. O., Baker, P. A., and Fritz, S. C. (2002). Insolation, moisture balance and climate change on the South American altiplano since the last glacial maximum. Climatic Change 52: 175–199.
Rowe, J. H. (1969). The sunken gardens of the Peruvian coast. American Antiquity 34: 320–325.
Salomon, F. (1985). The dynamic potential of the complementarity concept. In Masuda, S., Shimada, I., and Morris, C. (eds.), Andean Ecology and Civilization: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 511–531.
Salomon, F., and Urioste, G. L. (1991). The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Sandor, J. A., and Eash, N. S. (1995). Ancient agricultural soils in the Andes of southern Peru. Soil Science Society of America Journal 59: 170–179.
Sandweiss, D. H. (2003). Terminal Pleistocene through mid-Holocene archaeological sites as paleoclimatic archives for the Peruvian coast. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 23–40.
Sandweiss, D. H., Richardson, J. B., III, Reitz, E. J., Rollins, H. B., and Maasch, K. A. (1996). Geoarchaeological evidence from Peru for a 5000 years B.P. onset of El Niño. Science 273: 1531–1533.
Sandweiss, D. H., Maasch, K. A., and Anderson, D. G. (1999). Climate and culture: Transitions in the mid-Holocene. Science 283: 499–499.
Sandweiss, D. H., Maasch, K. A., Burger, R. L., Richardson, J. B., III, Rollins, H. B., and Clement, A. (2001). Variation in Holocene El Niño frequencies: Climate records and cultural consequences in ancient Peru. Geology 29: 603–606.
Sandweiss, D. H., Maasch, K. A., Andrus, C. F. T., Reitz, E. J., Riedinger-Whitmore, M., Richardson, J. B., III, and Rollins, H. B. (2007). Mid-Holocene climate and culture change in coastal Peru. In Anderson, D. G., Maasch, K. A., and Sandweiss, D. H. (eds.), Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics: A Global Perspective on Mid-Holocene Transitions, Academic Press, London, pp. 25–50.
Sandweiss, D. H., Solís, R. S., Moseley, M. E., Keefer, D. K., and Ortloff, C. R. (2009). Environmental change and economic development in coastal Peru between 5,800 and 3,600 years ago. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 1359–1363.
Sarmiento, F. O. (2000). Breaking mountain paradigms: Ecological effects on human impacts in man-aged tropandean landscapes. Ambio 29: 423–431.
Sarmiento, F. O., and Frolich, L. M. (2002). Andean cloud forest tree lines. Mountain Research and Development 22: 278–287.
Satterlee, D. R., Moseley, M. E., Keefer, D. K., and Tapia, A. J. (2001). The Miraflores El Niño disaster: Convergent catastrophes and prehistoric agrarian change in Southern Peru. Andean Past 6: 95–116.
Sauer, C. O. (1956). The agency of man on the earth. In William, L., and Thomas, J. (eds.), Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 45–69.
Sauer, C. O. (1958). Man in the ecology of tropical America. In Proceedings of the Ninth Pacific Science Congress, Bangkok 1957, Secretariat, Ninth Pacific Science Congress, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 104–110.
Scarborough, V. L. (2003). How to interpret an ancient landscape. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100: 4366–4368.
Schjellerup, I. (1992). Pre-Columbian field systems and vegetation in the jalca of northeastern Peru. In Balslev, H., and Luteyn, J. L. (eds.), Páramo: An Andean Ecosystem under Human Influence, Academic Press, London, pp. 137–150.
Schreiber, K. (2005). Sacred landscapes and imperial ideologies: The Wari empire in Sondondo, Peru. In Vaughn, K. J., Ogburn, D., and Conlee, C. A. (eds.), Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, Archeological Papers No. 14, American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 131–150.
Schreiber, K., and Lancho Rojas, J. (2003). Irrigation and Society in the Peruvian Desert: The Puquios of Nasca, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD.
Scoones, I. (1999). New ecology and the social sciences: What prospects for a fruitful engagement? Annual Review of Anthropology 28: 479–507.
Seibert, P. (1983). Human impact on landscape and vegetation in the central high Andes. In Holzner, W., Werger, M. J., and Ikusima, I. (eds.), Man’s Impact on Vegetation, Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp. 261–276.
Seltzer, G. O. (1990). Recent glacial history and paleoclimate of the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes. Quaternary Science Reviews 9: 137–152.
Seltzer, G. O., and Hastorf, C. (1990). Climatic change and its effect on prehispanic agriculture in the Central Peruvian Andes. Journal of Field Archaeology 17: 397–414.
Seltzer, G. O., and Rodbell, D. T. (2005). Delta progradation and neoglaciation, Laguna Paron, Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Journal of Quaternary Science 20: 715–722.
Seltzer, G. O., Rodbell, D. T.,and Burns, S. (2000). Isotopic evidence for late Quaternary climatic change in tropical South America. Geology 28: 35–38.
Shady Solís, R. (2006). America’s first city? The case of Late Archaic Caral. In Isbell, W. H., and Silverman, H. (eds.), Andean Archaeology III: North and South, Springer, New York, pp. 28–66.
Shimada, I. (1981). The Batan Grande-La Leche archaeological project: The first two seasons. Journal of Field Archaeology 8: 405–446.
Shimada, I. (1987). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of prehistoric states in north Perú. In Haas, J., Pozorski, S., and Pozorski, T. (eds.), The Origins and Development of the Andean State, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 130–144.
Shimada, I. (2000). The late prehispanic coastal states. In Laurencich-Minelli, L. (ed.), The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, AD 1000–1534, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, pp. 49–110.
Shimada, I., Schaaf, C. B., Thompson, L. G., and Mosley-Thompson, E. (1991). Cultural impacts of severe droughts in the prehistoric Andes: Application of a 1,500-year ice core precipitation record. World Archaeology 22: 247–270.
Shippee, R. (1932a). The “great wall of Peru” and other aerial photographic studies by the Shippee-Johnson Peruvian expedition. Geographical Review 22: 1–29.
Shippee, R. (1932b). Lost valleys of Peru: Results of the Shippee-Johnson Peruvian expedition. The Geographical Review 22: 562–581.
Silverman, H. (2002). Ancient Nasca Settlement and Society, University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.
Silverman, H. (2004). Introduction: Space and time in the central Andes. In Silverman, H. (ed.), Andean Archaeology, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 1–15.
Smith, C. E. (1980). Vegetation and land use near Guitarrero Cave. In Lynch, T. F. (ed.), Guitarrero Cave: Early Man in the Andes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 65–83.
Smith, R. T. (1979). The development and role of sunken field agriculture on the Peruvian coast. The Geographical Journal 145: 387–400.
Spriggs, M. (1997). Landscape catastrophe and landscape enhancement: Are either or both true in the Pacific? In Kirch, P. V., and Hunt, T. L. (eds.), Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 80–104.
Stahl, P. W. (1991). Arid landscapes and environmental transformations in ancient southwestern Ecuador. World Archaeology 22: 346–359.
Stahl, P. W. (1996). Holocene biodiversity: An archaeological perspective from the Americas. Annual Review of Anthropology 25: 105–126.
Staller, J. (2008). Dimensions of place: The significance of centers to the development of Andean civilization: An exploration of the Ushnu concept. In Staller, J. (ed.), Pre-Columbian Landscapes of Creation and Origin, Springer, New York, pp. 269–313.
Stanish, C. (1989). Household archaeology: Testing models of zonal complementarity in the south central Andes. American Anthropologist 91: 7–24.
Stanish, C. (1994). The hydraulic hypothesis revisited: Lake Titicaca Basin raised fields in theoretical perspective. Latin American Antiquity 5: 312–332.
Stanish, C. (2003). Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Steward, J. H., Adams, R. M., Collier, D., Palerm, A., Wittfogel, K. A., and Beals, R. L. (1955). Irrigation Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Pan American Union, Washington, DC.
Tapia, P. M., Fritz, S. C., Baker, P. A., Seltzer, G. O., and Dunbar, R. B. (2003). A Late Quaternary diatom record of tropical climatic history from Lake Titicaca (Peru and Bolivia). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194: 139–164.
Tavera, H., Buforn, E., Bernal, I., Antayhua, Y., and Vilacapoma, L. (2002). The Arequipa (Peru) earthquake of June 23, 2001. Journal of Seismology 6: 279–283.
Tello, J. C. (1930). Andean civilization: Some problems of Peruvian archaeology. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Americanists, Science Press, New York, pp. 259–290.
Thomas, J. (2001). Archaeologies of place and landscape. In Hodder, I. (ed.), Archaeological Theory Today, Polity Press, Cambridge, pp. 165–186.
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Bolzan, J. F., and Koci, B. R. (1985). A 1500-year record of tropical precipitation in ice cores from the Quelccaya ice cap, Peru. Science 229: 971–973.
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Davis, M. E., Lin, P.-N., Henderson, K. A., Cole-Dai, J., Bolzan, J. F., and Liu, K.-B. (1995). Late glacial stage and Holocene tropical ice core records from Huascaran, Peru. Science 269: 46–50.
Thompson, L. G., Davis, M. E., Mosley-Thompson, E., Sowers, T. A., Henderson, K. A., Zagorodnov, V. S., Lin, P.-N., Mikhalenko, V. N., Campen, R. K., Bolzan, J. F., Cole-Dai, J., and Francou, B. (1998). A 25,000-year tropical climate history from Bolivian ice cores. Science 282: 1858–1864.
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., and Henderson, K. A. (2000). Ice-core palaeoclimate records in tropical South America since the Last Glacial Maximum. Journal of Quaternary Science 15: 377–394.
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Davis, M. E., Lin, P.-N., Henderson, K., and Mashiotta, T. A. (2003). Tropical glacier and ice core evidence of climate change on annual to millennial time scales. Climatic Change 59: 137–155.
Thouret, J. C., Davila, J., and Eissen, J. P. (1999). Largest explosive eruption in historical times in the Andes at Huaynaputina Volcano, A.D. 1600, southern Peru. Geology 27: 435–438.
Thouret, J. C., Juvigné, E., Gourgaud, A., Boivin, P., and Dávila, J. (2002a). Reconstruction of the A.D. 1600 Huaynaputina eruption based on the correlation of geologic evidence with early Spanish chronicles. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 115: 529–570.
Thouret, J. C., Juvigné, E., Marino, J., Moscol, M., Legeley-Padovani, A., Loutsch, I., Davila, J., Lamadon, S., and Rivera, M. (2002b). Late Pleistocene and Holocene tephro-stratigraphy and chronology in southern Peru. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica del Perú 93: 45–61.
Tilley, C. (1994). A Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths, and Monuments, Berg, Oxford.
Tosi, J. A. (1960). Zonas de vida natural en el Perú; memoria explicativa sobre el mapa ecológico del Perú, Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agrícolas de la OEA, Zona Andina, Lima, Peru.
Trigger, B. G. (1971). Archaeology and ecology. World Archaeology 2: 321–336.
Trigger, B. G. (1989). A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Troll, C. (ed.) (1968). Geo-ecology of the Mountainous Regions of the Tropical Americas, Dümmler in Kommission, Bonn.
Tuan, Y.-F. (1974). Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Uceda C., S., and Canziani Amico, J. (1993). Evidencias de grandes precipitaciones en diversas etapas constructivas de la Huaca de la Luna, costa norte del Perú. Bulletin de L’Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines 22: 313–343.
Ucko, P. J., and Layton, R. (eds.) (1999). The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping Your Landscape, Routledge, London.
Van Buren, M. (1996). Rethinking the vertical archipelago: Ethnicity, exchange, and history in the South Central Andes. American Anthropologist 98: 338–351.
Van Buren, M. (2001). The archaeology of El Niño events and other “natural” disasters. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 8: 129–149.
van de Guchte, M. (1999). The Inca cognition of landscape: Archaeology, ethnohistory, and the aesthetic of alterity. In Ashmore, W., and Knapp, A. B. (eds.), Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 149–168.
van der Leeuw, S., and Redman, C. (2002). Placing archaeology at the center of socio-natural studies. American Antiquity 67: 597–605.
Verano, J. W., and Ubelaker, D. H. (eds.) (1992). Disease and Demography in the Americas, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Wells, L. E., and Noller, J. S. (1999). Holocene coevolution of the physical landscape and human settlement in northern coastal Peru. Geoarchaeology 14: 755–789.
Weng, C., Bush, M. B., and Chepstow-Lusty, A. J. (2004). Holocene changes of Andean alder (Alnus acuminata) in highland Ecuador and Peru. Journal of Quaternary Science 19: 685–691.
Weng, C., Bush, M. B., Curtis, J. H., Kolata, A. L., Dillehay, T. D., and Binford, M. W. (2006). Deglaciation and Holocene climate change in the western Peruvian Andes. Quaternary Research 66: 87–96.
West, M. (1979). Early watertable farming on the north coast of Peru. American Antiquity 44: 138–144.
West, M. (1981). Agricultural resource use in an Andean coastal ecosystem. Human Ecology 9: 47–78.
Willey, G. R. (1953). Prehistoric Settlement Patterns In The Virú Valley, Peru, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Williams, P. R. (2002). Rethinking disaster-induced collapse in the demise of the Andean highland states: Wari and Tiwanaku. World Archaeology 33: 361–374.
Williams, P. R., and Nash, D. (2006). Sighting the apu: a GIS analysis of Wari imperialism and the worship of mountain peaks. World Archaeology 38: 455–468.
Williams, P. R., Keefer, D. K., Nash, D. J., Sims, K. Y., Dayton, C., and Moseley, M. (2005). Envisioning the invisible: Reconstructing the taphonomy of ancient Andean agricultural landscapes through GIS slope stability models. In Forte, M. (ed.), The Reconstruction of Archaeological Landscapes through Digital Technologies: Proceedings of the 2nd Italy-United States Workshop, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 53–60.
Wilson, D. J. (1981). Of maize and men: A critique of the maritime hypothesis of state origins on the coast of Peru. American Anthropologist 83: 93–120.
Winterhalder, B., and Thomas, R. B. (1978). Geoecology of Southern Highland Peru: A Human Adaptation Perspective, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Wittfogel, K. A. (1957). Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Wright, H. E., Seltzer, G. O., and Hansen, B. C. (1989). Glacial and climatic history of the central Peruvian Andes. National Geographic Research 5: 439–445.
Wright, K. R., McEwan, G. F., and Wright, R. M. (2006). Tipon: Water Engineering Masterpiece of the Inca Empire, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
Young, K. R. (2008). Stasis and flux in long-inhabited locales: Change in rural Andean landscapes. In Millington, A., and Jepson, W. (eds.), Land-Change Science in the Tropics: Changing Agricultural Landscapes, Springer, New York, pp. 11–32.
Zaro, G., and Umire Álvarez, A. (2005). Late Chiribaya agriculture and risk management along the arid Andean coast of southern Peru, A.D. 1200–1400. Geoarchaeology 20: 717–737.
Zeidler, J. A. (2008). The Ecuadorian Formative. In Silverman, H., and Isbell, W. H. (eds.), Handbook of South American Archaeology, Springer, New York, pp. 459–488.
Zeidler, J. A., and Isaacson, J. S. (2003). Settlement process and historical contingency in the western Ecuadorian Formative. In Raymond, J. S., and Burger, R. L. (eds.), Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 69–123.
Zimmerer, K. S. (1994). Human geography and the new ecology: The prospect and promise of integration. Annals of the American Association of Geographers 84: 108–125.
Zimmerer, K. S. (1999). Overlapping patchworks of mountain agriculture in Peru and Bolivia: Toward a regional-global landscape model. Human Ecology 27: 135–165.
Zimmerer, K. S., and Bassett, T. J. (eds.) (2003). Political Ecology: An Integrative Approach to Geography and Environment-Development Studies, Guilford Publications, New York.
Zimmerer, K. S., and Langstroth, R. P. (1993). Physical geography of tropical Latin America: The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of environments. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 14: 157–172.
Zuidema, R. T. (1962). The Ceque System of Cuzco: The Social Organization of the Capital of the Inca, E. J. Brill, Leiden.
Bibliography of recent literature
Andrus, C. F. T., Crowe, D. E., Sandweiss, D. H., Reitz, E. J., and Romanek, C. S. (2002). Otolith delta 18O record of mid-Holocene sea surface temperatures in Peru. Science 295: 1508–1511.
Baker, P. A., Rigsby, C. A., Seltzer, G. O., Fritz, S. C., Lowenstein, T. K., Bacher, N. P., and Veliz, C. (2001). Tropical climate changes at millennial and orbital timescales on the Bolivian altiplano. Nature 409: 698–701.
Baker, P. A., Fritz, S. C., Garland, J., and Ekdahl, E. (2005). Holocene hydrologic variation at Lake Titacaca, Bolivia/Peru, and its relationship to North Atlantic climate variation. Journal of Quaternary Science 20: 655–662.
Brooks, N. (2006). Cultural responses to aridity in the Middle Holocene and increased social complexity. Quaternary International 151: 29–49.
Dillehay, T. D., Bonavia, D., and Kaulicke, P. (2004). The first settlers. In Silverman, H. (ed.), Andean Archaeology, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 16–34.
Dransart, P. (ed.) (2006). Kay Pacha: Cultivating Earth and Water in the Andes, BAR International Series 1478, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Eitel, B., and Mächtle, B. (2009). Man and environment in the eastern Atacama Desert (southern Peru): Holocene climate changes and their impact on pre-Columbian cultures. In Reindel, M., and Wagner, G. A. (eds.), New Technologies for Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Investigations in Palpa and Nasca, Peru, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 17–37.
Erickson, C. L. (2006). Intensification, political economy, and the farming community: In defense of a bottom-up perspective of the past. In Stanish, C., and Marcus, J. (eds.), Agricultural Strategies, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 334–363.
Ertsen, M. W., and van der Spek, J. (2008). Modeling an irrigation ditch opens up the world. Hydrology and hydraulics of an ancient irrigation system in Peru. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 34: 176–191.
Etter, A., and van Wyngaarden, W. (2000). Patterns of landscape transformation in Colombia, with emphasis in the Andean region. Ambio 29: 432–439.
Gade, D. W. (1999). Nature and Culture in the Andes, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Ghezzi, I., and Ruggles, C. (2007). Chankillo: A 2300-year-old solar observatory in coastal Peru. Science 315: 1239–1243.
Hesse, R. (2009). Do swarms of migrating barchan dunes record paleoenvironmental changes? A case study spanning the middle to late Holocene in the Pampa de Jaguay, southern Peru. Geomorphology 104: 185–190.
Isbell, W. H. (2006). Landscape of power: A network of palaces in Middle Horizon Peru. In Christie, J., and Joan Sarro, P. (eds.), Palaces and Power in the Americas: From Peru to the Northwest Coast, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 44–98.
Kendall, A. (2005). Restauración agrícola en los Andes: recuperación de los sistemas tradicionales de riego y andenes agrícolas, The Cusicacha Trust, Ayacucho, Peru.
Knudson, K. J., and Buikstra, J. E. (2007). Residential mobility and resource use in the Chiribaya polity of southern Peru: Strontium isotope analysis of archaeological tooth enamel and bone. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 17: 563–580.
Kornbacher, K. D. (2002). Horsemen of the apocalypse: The relationship between severe environmental perturbations and culture change on the north coast of Peru. In Torrence, R., and Grattan, J. (eds.), Natural Disasters and Cultural Change, Routledge, London, pp. 204–234.
Lambers, K., and Sauerbier, M. (2006). GIS-based visibility studies of the Nasca geoglyphs at Palpa, Peru. In Baltsavias, E., Gruen, A., Gool, L. V., and Pateraki, M. (eds.), Recording, Modeling and Visualization of Cultural Heritage, Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 249–262.
Londoño, A. C. (2007). Pattern and rate of erosion inferred from Inca agricultural terraces in arid southern Peru. Geomorphology 99: 13–25.
Mächtle, B., Eitel, B., Schukraft, G., and Ross, K. (2009). Built on sand: Climatic oscillation and water harvesting during the Late Intermediate period. In Reindel, M., and Wagner, G. A. (eds.), New Technologies for Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Investigations in Palpa and Nasca, Peru, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 39–46.
Magilligan, F. J., Goldstein, P. S., Fisher, G. B., Bostick, B. C., and Manners, R. B. (2008). Late Quaternary hydroclimatology of a hyper-arid Andean watershed: Climate change, floods, and hydrologic responses to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation in the Atacama Desert. Geomorphology 101: 14–32.
Mantha, A. (2009). Territoriality, social boundaries and ancestor veneration in the central Andes of Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28: 158–176.
Morales, M., Barberena, R., Belardi, J. B., Borrero, L., Cortegoso, V., Durán, V., Guerci, A., Goñi, R., Gil, A., Neme, G., Yacobaccio, H., and Zárate, M. (2009). Reviewing human–environment interactions in arid regions of southern South America during the past 3000 years. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 281: 283–295.
Morris, A. (1999). The agricultural base of the pre-Incan Andean civilizations. The Geographical Journal 165: 286–295.
Sampietro Vattuone, M. M., Neder, L., Roldan, J., and Vattuone, M. A. (2008). Mother Earth: Soil and people relationships during the prehispanic period (northwest Argentina). World Archaeology 40: 190–205.
Sandor, J. A. (2006). Ancient agricultural terraces and soils. In Warkentin, B. P. (ed.), Footprints in the Soil: People and Ideas in Soil History, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 505–534.
Schwartz, G. M., and Nichols, J. J. (eds.) (2006). After collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Silverman, H., and Isbell, W. H. (eds.) (2008). The Handbook of South American Archaeology, Springer, New York.
Smith, M. E., and Schreiber, K. J. (2005). New World states and empires: Economic and social organization. Journal of Archaeological Research 13: 189–229.
Stanish, C. (2006). Prehispanic agricultural strategies of intensification in the Titcaca Basin of Peru and Bolivia. In Stanish, C., and Marcus, J. (eds.), Agricultural Strategies, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 364–400.
Stanish, C. (2007). Agricultural intensification in the Titicaca Basin. In Thurston, T. L., and Fisher, C. T. (eds.), Seeking a Richer Harvest: The Archaeology of Subsistence Intensification, Innovation, and Change, Springer, New York, pp. 125–139.
Swenson, E. (2007). Adaptive strategies or ideological innovations? Interpreting sociopolitical developments in the Jequetepeque Valley of Peru during the Late Moche Period. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26: 253–282.
Trawick, P. (2001). The moral economy of water: Equity and antiquity in the Andean commons. American Anthropologist 103: 361–379.
Wernke, S. A. (2007). Negotiating community and landscape in the Peruvian Andes: A transconquest view. American Anthropologist 109: 130–152.
Williams, P. R. (2006). Agricultural innovation, intensification, and sociopolitical development: The case of highland irrigation agriculture on the Pacific Andean watersheds. In Stanish, C., and Marcus, J. (eds.), Agricultural Strategies, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 309–333.
Wilson, D. J. (1999). Indigenous South Americans of the Past and Present: An Ecological Perspective, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Young, K. R. (2005). Nature’s role in Latin American governance and history. Latin American Research Review 40: 457–468.
Acknowledgments
I thank Gary Feinman for encouraging me to write this article, as well as John Rick and David Keefer for guidance in the original research underlying it. Ignacio Cancino provided valuable comments and suggestions on this text, for which I thank him, and six anonymous reviewers provided remarkably thorough and constructive comments. The text also has been greatly improved by Linda Nicholas’ careful editing.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Contreras, D.A. Landscape and Environment: Insights from the Prehispanic Central Andes. J Archaeol Res 18, 241–288 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-010-9038-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-010-9038-6