Skip to main content

Veganism and Children: Physical and Social Well-Being

Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics volume 32, pages 269–291 (2019)Cite this article

Abstract

I claim that there is pro tanto moral reason for parents to not raise their child on a vegan diet because a vegan diet bears a risk of harm to both the physical and the social well-being of children. After giving the empirical evidence from nutrition science and sociology that supports this claim, I turn to the question of how vegan parents should take this moral reason into account. Since many different moral frameworks have been used to argue for veganism, this is a complex question. I suggest that, on some of these moral frameworks, the moral reason that some parents have for not raising their child on a vegan diet on account of this risk is plausibly as strong as the reason they have for raising their child on a vegan diet. In other words, the moral reason I outline is weighty enough to justify some vegan parents in plausibly finding it permissible to not raise their child on a vegan diet.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Notes

  1. Readers may be objecting that, if this is the case, then a parent also has no rights-based reason not to forbid their child from killing another human being and so forth. This is an objection that originates in Regan’s claim that we only have a duty to help prevent rights-violations and only a duty to assist victims of injustice, rather than there being a duty of justice to help protect life, property, and so forth. This a claim he formulates to avoid the implication that we must prevent animals from killing one another. As a non-Reganite, I am not attempting to defend Regan’s claim from counterexamples. The counterintuitive results that might be alleged against this application of Regan’s framework are problems that originate in Regan’s framework and are already noted and contested, though seemingly not resolved, in the literature (Jamieson 1990; Ebert and Machan 2012; Milburn 2015).

References

  • Alvaro, C. (2017). Ethical veganism, virtue, and greatness of the soul. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 30(6), 765–781.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amit, M. (2010). Vegetarian diets in children and adolescents. Paediatrics & child health, 15(5), 303–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amstell, S. (2017). Carnage. London: BBC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleby, P. N., & Key, T. J. (2016). The long-term health of vegetarians and vegans. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 75, 287–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archard, D. (2004). Children: Rights and childhood (2nd ed.). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, B., et al. (1974). Hematological, vitamin B12, and folate studies on seventh-day adventist vegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 27(1), 712–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, C. (2011). The Tom Regan week: On companion and wild animals. Animal Rights Zone. http://arzone.ning.com/forum/topics/the-tom-regan-week-on-1. July 6, 2018.

  • Banerjee, D. K., & Chatterjea, J. B. (1960). Serum vitamin B12 in vegetarians. The British Medical Journal, 2, 992–994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bath, S. C., & Rayman, M. P. (2018). Iodine as essential nutrient during the first 1000 days of life. Nutrients, 10(3), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanco, K., & Enrione, E. B. (2012). Intake of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus in vegans. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(9), A92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Branchesi, R. (2016). When vegan kids are invited to a non-vegan birthday party. Generation Veggie. http://www.generationveggie.org/when-vegan-kids-are-invited-to-a-non-vegan-birthday-party/. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Buchanan, A., & Brock, D. (1990). Deciding for others: The ethics of surrogate decision making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castañé, S., & Antón, A. (2017). Assessment of the nutritional quality and environmental impact of two food diets: A mediterranean and a vegan diet. Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 929–937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cigman, R. (1981). Death, misfortune and species inequality. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 10(1), 47–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciocchetti, C. (2012). Veganism and living well. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 25(3), 405–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cofnas, N. (2018). Is vegetarianism healthy for children? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition Online Pre. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10408398.2018.1437024. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Cole, M., & Morgan, K. (2011). Vegaphobia: Derogatory discourses of veganism and the reproduction of speciesism in UK National Newspapers. British Journal of Sociology, 62(1), 134–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig, W., & Mangels, A. R. (2009). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109(7), 1266–1282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, B. (2016). Utilitarianism and animal cruelty: Further doubts. De Ethica, 3(3), 5–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. L. (2003). The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 16(4), 387–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, C. (1978). Eating meat and eating people. Philosophy, 53(206), 465–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebert, R., & Machan, T. R. (2012). Innocent threats and the moral problem of carnivorous animals. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 29(2), 146–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elorinne, A.-l., et al. (2016). Food and nutrient intake and nutritional status of finnish vegans and non- vegetarians. PLoS ONE, 11(2), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engster, D. (2006). Care ethics and animal welfare. Journal of Social Philosophy, 37(4), 521–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, J. (1980). The child’s right to an open future. In W. Aiken & H. LaFollette (Eds.), Whose child? (pp. 124–153). Totowa, NJ: Rowman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fewtrell, M., et al. (2017). Complementary feeding: A position paper by the european society for paediatric gastroenterology, hepatology, and nutrition. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 64(1), 119–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, B., & Lamey, A. (2018). Field deaths in plant agriculture. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 31(4), 409–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, K. P. (1990). So animal a human…, or the moral relevance of being an omnivore. Journal of Agricultural Ethics, 3(2), 172–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, K. P. (1992). The use and abuse of scientific studies. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 5(2), 217–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, K. P. (1994). Use and abuse revisited: Response to Pluhar and Varner. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 7(1), 41–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, R. S., Heath, A. L. M., & Szymlek-Gay, E. A. (2013). Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(Supplement), 459–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, E. (2012). Being a Vegan Kid. Vegan Outreach. https://www.veganoutreach.org/articles/vegankid.html. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Haddad, E. H., & Tanzman, J. S. (2003). What do vegetarians in the United States eat? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(Supplement), 626–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hefferon, K. L. (2015). Nutritionally enhanced food crops; Progress and perspectives. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16(2), 3895–3914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, W., Schorr, H., & Obeid, R. (2003). Vitamin B-12 status, particularly holotranscobalamin II and methylmalonic acid concentrations, and hyperhomocysteinemia. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 78, 131–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hibbeln, J. R., Northstone, K., Evans, J., & Golding, J. (2018). Vegetarian diets and depressive symptoms among men. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holdier, A. G. (2016). The pig’s squeak: Towards a Renwed aesthetic argument for veganism. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 29(4), 631–642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jabs, J., Sobal, J., & Devine, C. M. (2000). Managing vegetarianism: Identities, norms and interactions. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 39(5), 375–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, D. (1990). Rights, justice, and duties to provide assistance: A critique of Regan’ s theory of rights. Ethics, 100(2), 349–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaganov, B., et al. (2015). Suboptimal micronutrient intake among children in Europe. Nutrients, 7(5), 3524–3535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, M., & Danner, E. (2009). Nutritional deficiencies in children on restricted diets. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 56(5), 1085–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.07.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, A., & Leitsberger, M. (2016). Vegetarian versus meat-based diets for companion animals. Animals, 6(9), 57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kronqvist, C. (2011). The promise that love will last. Inquiry, 54(6), 650–668.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le, L. T., & Sabaté, J. (2014). Beyond meatless, the health effects of vegan diets: Findings from the adventist cohorts. Nutrients, 6(6), 2131–2147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerette, D. (2014). Stories of microaggressions directed toward vegans and vegetarians in social settings. Dissertation, Fielding Graduate University.

  • Lerner, M. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, A. M., et al. (2011). Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 96(8), 1303–1307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindquist, A. (2013). Beyond hippies and rabbit food: The social effects of vegetarianism and veganism. Sociology and Anthropology, 3, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lomasky, L. (2013). Is it wrong to eat animals? Social Philosophy and Policy, 30(1), 177–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loss, S. R., Will, T., & Marra, P. P. (2013). The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications, 4, 1396–1397.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacInnis, C. C., & Hodson, G. (2017). It ain’t easy eating greens: Evidence of bias toward vegetarians and vegans from both source and target. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 20(6), 721–744.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangels, R., & Driggers, J. (2012). The youngest vegetarians: Vegetarian infants and toddlers. ICAN: Infant, Child, & Adolescent Nutrition, 4(1), 8–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangels, A. R., & Messina, V. (2001). Considerations in planning vegan diets: Children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101(6), 670–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manuela, P., Cardoso, D. C., Filipa, A., & Vicente, B. (2013). Meat nutritional composition and nutritive role in the human diet. Meat Science, 93(3), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.09.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melina, V., Craig, W., & Levin, S. (2016). Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: Vegetarian diets. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(12), 1970–1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milburn, J. (2015). Rabbits, stoats and the predator problem: Why a strong animal rights position need not call for human intervention to protect prey from predators. Res Publica, 21(3), 273–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minson, J. A., & Monin, B. (2012). Do-gooder derogation: Disparaging morally motivated minorities to defuse anticipated reproach. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(2), 200–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moller, D. (2003). An argument against marriage. Philosophy, 78(1), 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholas, S. (2019). Have mothers who make their babies go vegan lost the plot? The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6775085/Experts-say-making-babies-vegan-cause-lasting-harm.html. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Nohr, D., & Biesalski, H. K. (2007). ‘Mealthy’ food: Meat as a healthy and valuable source of micronutrients. Animal, 1(2), 309–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novaković, R., et al. (2014). Socio-economic determinants of micronutrient intake and status in Europe: A systematic review. Public Health Nutrition, 17(5), 1031–1045.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, R. (2017). To vegan or not to vegan when pregnant, lactating or feeding young children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71(11), 1259–1262. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2017.111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, R., & Bell, K. (2017). Iron status of vegetarian children: A review of literature. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism, 70, 88–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, R., Lester, S. E., & Babatunde, T. (2014). The prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegetarians assessed by serum vitamin B12: A review of literature. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68(5), 541–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, R., et al. (2013). How prevalent is vitamin B12 deficiency among vegetarians? Nutrition Reviews, 71(2), 110–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, R., et al. (2015). Is vitamin B12 deficiency a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in vegetarians? American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 48(6), e11–e26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, P. C. (2014). Milk nutritional composition and its role in human health. Nutrition, 30(6), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2013.10.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • PETA. (2018). Essential nutrients. peta.org. https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/essential-nutrients/. May 6, 2018.

  • Piccoli, G. B., et al. (2015). Vegan-vegetarian diets in pregnancy: Danger or panacea? A systematic narrative review. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 122(5), 623–633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pluhar, E. (1992). Who can be morally obligated to be a vegetarian? Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 5(2), 189–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pluhar, E. (1993). On vegetarianism, morality, and science: A counter reply. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 6(2), 185–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pluhar, E. (1994). Vegetarianism, morality, and science revisited. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 7(1), 77–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeder, D. (2018). Taking your vegan kid to a birthday party. Raise Vegan. https://raisevegan.com/vegan-kid-to-a-birthday-party/. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Regan, T. (1980). Utilitarianism, vegetarianism, and animal rights. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 9(4), 305–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regan, T. (1983). The case for animal rights. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, A. (2017). Veganism and ‘the analytic question’. Between the Species, 20(1), 38–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter, M., et al. (2016). Vegan Diet. Position of the German Nutrition Society. Ernahrungs Umschau, 63(05), 92–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rizzo, N. S., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Sabate, J., & Fraser, G. E. (2013). Nutrient profiles of vegetarian and nonvegetarian dietary patterns. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 113(12), 1610–1619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.06.349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosell, M. S., et al. (2005). Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in british meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82, 327–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, D. L., & Burrow, A. L. (2017). The unified model of vegetarian identity: A conceptual framework for understanding plant-based food choices. Appetite, 112, 78–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.01.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothgerber, H. (2013). A meaty matter: Pet diet and the vegetarian’s dilemma. Appetite, 68, 76–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothgerber, H. (2014). Efforts to overcome vegetarian-induced dissonance among meat eaters. Appetite, 79, 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.04.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowlands, M. (2002). Animals like us. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruby, M. B., & Heine, S. J. (2011). Meat, morals, and masculinity. Appetite, 56(2), 447–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.01.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarter, B., Kelsey, K. S., Schwartz, T. A., & Harris, W. S. (2015). Blood docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in vegans: Associations with age and gender and effects of an algal-derived omega-3 fatty acid supplement. Clinical Nutrition, 34(2), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuchardt, J. P., Huss, M., Strauss-Grabo, M., & Hahn, A. (2010). Significance of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for the development and behaviour of children. European Journal of Pediatrics, 169(2), 149–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schüpbach, R., et al. (2017). Micronutrient status and intake in omnivores, vegetarians and vegans in Switzerland. European Journal of Nutrition, 56(1), 283–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schürmann, S., Kersting, M., & Alexy, U. (2017). Vegetarian diets in children: A systematic review. European Journal of Nutrition, 56(5), 1797–1817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seal, R. (2018). ‘If they’re not eating any vegetables, you panic’: The families raising vegan children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/nov/24/not-eating-vegetables-families-raising-vegan-children. Accessed 10 Apr 2019.

  • Sherratt, A. (2007). Vegetarians and their children. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 24(4), 425–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, P. (1989). All animals are equal. In P. Singer & T. Regan (Eds.), Animal rights and human obligations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobiecki, J. G., Appleby, P. N., Bradbury, K. E., & Key, T. J. (2016). High compliance with dietary recommendations in a cohort of meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians, and vegans. Nutrition Research, 36(5), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2015.12.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solon, O. (2018). The owners putting pets on vegan diets. Guardian, The. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/feb/02/the-owners-putting-pets-on-vegan-diets-we-feed-our-animals-without-exploiting-others. June 6, 2018.

  • Stanford, K. (2017). Underdetermination of scientific theory. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/. Accessed 25 Apr 2019.

  • Tacon, A. G. J., & Metian, M. (2013). Fish matters: Importance of aquatic foods in human nutrition and global food supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 21(1), 22–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Vegan Society. (2018). “Nutrients.” vegansociety.com. https://www.vegansociety.com/resources/nutrition-and-health/nutrients. May 6, 2018.

  • Thomas, M. A. (2016). Are vegans the same as vegetarians? The effect of diet on perceptions of masculinity. Appetite, 97, 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.11.021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trahan, L. (2015). What to do if you’re bullied for being vegan. Peta2. https://www.peta2.com/news/vegan-bullied/. April 6, 2018.

  • Van Winckel, M., Velde, S. V., De Bruyne, R., & Van Biervliet, S. (2011). Clinical practice: Vegetarian infant and child nutrition. European Journal of Pediatrics, 170(12), 1489–1494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolke, D., & Lereya, S. T. (2015). Long-term effects of bullying. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 100(9), 879–885.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Thanks to an anonymous reviewer, Josh Milburn, and Siofra Frost, for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Tulane University, 105 Newcomb Hall, 1229 Broadway, New Orleans, LA, 70118, USA

    Marcus William Hunt

Authors
  1. Marcus William Hunt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marcus William Hunt.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hunt, M.W. Veganism and Children: Physical and Social Well-Being. J Agric Environ Ethics 32, 269–291 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-019-09773-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-019-09773-4

Keywords

  • Veganism
  • Children’s rights
  • Animal ethics
  • Applied ethics
  • Nutrition