Abstract
Many moral philosophers have criticized intensive animal farming because it can be harmful to the environment, it causes pain and misery to a large number of animals, and furthermore eating meat and animal-based products can be unhealthful. The issue of industrially farmed animals has become one of the most pressing ethical questions of our time. On the one hand, utilitarians have argued that we should become vegetarians or vegans because the practices of raising animals for food are immoral since they minimize the overall happiness. Deontologists, on the other hand, have argued that the practices of raising animals for food are immoral because animals have certain rights and we have duties toward them. Some virtue ethicists remain unconvinced of deontic and consequentialist arguments against the exploitation of animals and suggest that a virtue-based approach is better equipped to show what is immoral about raising and using animals for food, and what is virtuous about ethical veganism.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.Notes
This revival began with the famous G.E.M. Anscombe’s article “Modern Moral Philosophy”, Philosophy 33 (1958).
“Is it OK to eat eggs from chickens I’ve raised in my backyard?” http://www.peta.org/about-peta/faq/is-it-ok-to-eat-eggs-from-chickens-ive-raised-in-my-backyard/.
“What is Veganism” http://animalrights.about.com/od/animalrights101/a/Veganism.htm.
Aristotle, Ethics, IV. 3.
Utilitarians and deontologists have been the dominant forces in the recent literature on ethical issues regarding animals. The literature is vast, but the most influential are the works of Peter Singer, and Tom Regan: Regan, T. (2004). The case for animal rights (Revised ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Singer, P. (1975). Animal liberation: A new ethics for our treatment of animals. New York, NY: Avon Books. Singer, P. (1993). Practical Ethics (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Singer, P. (1980). Utilitarianism and vegetarianism. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9(4), 305–324.
Shafer-Landau, Vegetarianism, Causation and Ethical Theory, Public Affairs Quarterly, Volume 8, Number 1, January 1994.
Tristram McPherson, Why I am a Vegan, 1.
See Hursthouse, R. (1999). On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hursthouse, R. (2006). Applying virtue ethics to our treatment of other animals. In J. Welchman (Ed.), The Practice of Virtue: Classic and Contemporary Readings in Virtue Ethics. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. Hursthouse, R. (2011). Virtue ethics and the treatment of animals. In T. Beauchamp & R. Frey (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of animal ethics. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Abbate (2014). Virtues and animals: A minimally decent ethic for practical living in a non-ideal world. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 27(6), 909–929.
Tooley, M. (1972), “Abortion and Infanticide”. Philosophy and Public Affairs 2.1, 37–65.
Cohen, C. “The Case for the Use of Animals in Biomedical Research.” The New England Journal of Medicine 315, 1986. 865–869.
Brian Luke “Justice, Caring and Animal Liberation” published in The Feminist Care Tradition in Animal Ethics, 124–148.
Diamond, 466.
Ibid., 467.
Ibid., 467.
Josephine Donovan “Feminism and the Treatment of Animals: From Care to Dialogue”
Signs Vol. 31, No. 2 (Winter 2006), 306.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, II. 1103a30.
Aristotle, III. 10, 1118a, 10.
Ibid. III. 10, 1128a, 25.
Ibid. III. 10, 1118a, 15.
Ibid. III. 10, 1119a, 15.
See Tuso PJ, Ismail MH, Ha BP, Bartolotto C. Nutritional Update for Physicians: Plant-Based Diets. The Permanente Journal. 2013;17(2):61–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/12-085.: “Research shows that plant-based diets are cost-effective, low-risk interventions that may lower body mass index, blood pressure, HbA1C, and cholesterol levels. They may also reduce the number of medications needed to treat chronic diseases and lower ischemic heart disease mortality rates. Physicians should consider recommending a plant-based diet to all their patients, especially those with high blood pressure, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or obesity”.
Craig WJ, Mangels AR; American Dietetic Association. “Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets.” Am Diet Assoc. 2009 Jul; 109(7):1266–82.
Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat, The Lancet Oncology, Volume 16, No. 16, 1599–1600, December 2015. http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf.
T. Campbell’s The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted And the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss, And Long-term Health, BenBella Books; 1 edition (May 11, 2006).
“Red meat consumption and breast cancer risk” https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/red-meat-consumption-and-breast-cancer-risk/.
Montalcini T, De Bonis D, Ferro Y. “High vegetable fats intake is associated with high resting energy expenditure in vegetarians” Nutrients. 2015;7:5933–5947
Fraser G, Haddad E. Hot Topic: Vegetarianism, Mortality and Metabolic Risk: The New Adventist Health Study. Report presented at: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetic (Food and Nutrition Conference) Annual Meeting; October 7, 2012: Philadelphia, PA. 2011.
“Vegetarian Dietary Patterns and Mortality in Adventist Health Study 2” JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(13):1230–1238. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.6473.
“Trends in meat consumption in the United States” Public Health Nutr. 2011 Apr; 14(4): 575–583. Published online 2010 Nov 12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980010002077 and the Economist’s Apr. 30, 2012, article “Kings of the Carnivores” Apr 30th 2012, 15:40 By The Economist Online, http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2012/04/daily-chart-17.
U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health, National Research Council (US); Institute of Medicine (US); Woolf SH, Aron L, editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013.
“Obesity Information” http://www.heart.org/ HEARTORG/Healthy Living/WeightManagement/Obesity/Obesity-Information_UCM_307908_Article.jsp#.WGci9bGZNE4.
Aristotle, III. 2, 1119a.25.
1119b.15.
(Aristotle 1959, 2.8, 1385b 13–16)
Aristotle, Rhet. 1386a6–7, 1385b14, b34–1386a1, 1386b7, b10, b12, b13, 1386b14–15; and Poetics 1453a4, 5.
Ethics, II.6, 1106b18-19; 1106b21–7.
Crisp, “Compassion and Beyond”, 243.
Ethics, II.4, 1105a.
Lori Gruen, 45.
See Hursthouse 1999, p. 14.
Stephens, “Five Arguments for Vegetarianism,” p. 33.
Aristotle, IV.3, 1123b, 30, 1124b, 18.
Ibid. V. 1129b, 21.
Ibid. 1129b.
Ibid. 1129b, 18.
Allen (2004) “Animal Consciousness.” Nous 38.4, 617–643.
See Animal Minds Beyond Cognition to Consciousness by Donald R. Griffin.
Rachel Premack, “Meat is Horrible” The Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/06/30/how-meat-is-destroying-the-planet-in-seven-charts/?utm_term=.fa399b2b7544.
“Assessing the Environmental Impact of Consumption and Production” http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/PriorityProductsAndMaterials_Report.pdf.
“The Water Content of Things: How much water does it take to grow a hamburger?” https://water.usgs.gov/edu/activity-watercontent.php.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Enforcement Initiative: Preventing Animal Waste from Contaminating Surface and Ground Water, https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/national-enforcement-initiative-preventing-animal-waste-contaminating-surface-and-ground.
U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification, “Which other factors lead to land degradation?” http://newsbox.unccd.int.
References
Abbate, C. (2014). Virtues and animals: A minimally decent ethic for practical living in a non-ideal world. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 27(6), 909–929.
Allen, C. (2004). Animal pain. Nous, 38(4), 617–643.
Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958). Modern moral philosophy. Philosophy, 33, 1–19.
Aristotle. (1959). In Ross, W. D. (Ed.), Ars Rhetorica (1st edn.) Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Aristotle. (1965). In Kassel, R. (Ed.), De Arte Poetica. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Assessing the Environmental Impact of Consumption and Production. http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/PriorityProductsAndMaterials_Report.pdf.
Campbell, T. C. (2006). The China study: The most comprehensive study of nutrition ever conducted and the startling implications for diet, weight loss, and long-term health (1st ed.). Dallas: BenBella Books.
Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. In The lancet oncology, Vol. 16, No. 16, pp. 1599–1600, December 2015, http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf.
Cohen, C. (1986). The case for the use of animals in biomedical research. The New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 865–869.
Craig, W. J., & Mangels, A. R. (2009). American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets. American Dietetic Association, 109(7), 1266–1282.
Crisp, R. (2008). Compassion and beyond. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 11(3), 233–246.
Diamond, C. (1978). Eating meat and eating people. Philosophy, 53(206), 465–479.
Donovan, J. (2006). Feminism and the treatment of animals: From care to dialogue. Signs, 31(2), 306.
Fraser, G., Haddad, E. (2011). Hot topic: Vegetarianism, mortality and metabolic risk—The new adventist health study. Report presented at: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetic (food and nutrition conference) annual meeting; 7 October 2012, Philadelphia, PA.
Griffin, D. R. (2001). Animal minds beyond cognition to consciousness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gruen, L. (2014). Entangled empathy: An alternative ethic for our relationship with animals. Brooklyn, NY: Lantern Books.
Hursthouse, R. (1999). On virtue ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hursthouse, R. (2006). Applying virtue ethics to our treatment of other animals. In J. Welchman (Ed.), The practice of virtue: Classic and contemporary readings in virtue ethics. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.
Hursthouse, R. (2011). Virtue ethics and the treatment of animals. In T. Beauch & R. Frey (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of animal ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Is it OK to eat eggs from chickens I’ve raised in my backyard?. http://www.peta.org/about-peta/faq/is-it-ok-to-eat-eggs-from-chickens-ive-raised-in-my-backyard/.
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources Producer Question from 2016 Q. How much water do cows drink per day?. (July 19, 2016). The water content of things: How much water does it take to grow a hamburger?. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/activity-watercontent.php.
Kings of the Carnivores. (Apr 30th 2012). 15:40 The economist online, http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2012/04/daily-chart-17.
Luke, B. (2007). Justice, caring and animal liberation (1992) published. In The feminist care tradition in animal ethics, pp. 124–148. Columbia University Press.
Montalcini, T., De Bonis, D., & Ferro, Y. (2015). High vegetable fats intake is associated with high resting energy expenditure in vegetarians. Nutrients, 7, 5933–5947.
Obesity Information. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/WeightManagement/Obesity/Obesity-Information_UCM_307908_Article.jsp#.WGci9bGZNE4.
Rachel Premack. Meat is horrible. In The Washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/06/30/how-meat-is-destroying-the-planet-in-seven-charts/?utm_term=.fa399b2b7544.
Red meat consumption and breast cancer risk. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/red-meat-consumption-and-breast-cancer-risk/.
Regan, T. (2004). The case for animal rights. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Shafer-Landau, R. (1994). Vegetarianism, causation and ethical theory. Public Affairs Quarterly, 8(1), 85–100.
Singer, P. (1975). Animal liberation: A new ethics for our treatment of animals. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Singer, P. (1980). Utilitarianism and vegetarianism. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 9(4), 305–324.
Singer, P. (1993). Practical ethics (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stephens, W. O. (1994). Five arguments for vegetarianism. Philosophy in the Contemporary World, 1(4), 25–39.
Tooley, M. (1972). Abortion and infanticide. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 2(1), 37–65.
Trends in meat consumption in the United States. (2011 Apr) Public health nutrition, 14(4), 575–583. Published online 2010 Nov 12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980010002077.
Tuso, P. J., Ismail, M. H., Ha, B. P., & Bartolotto, C. (2013). Nutritional update for physicians: Plant-based diets. The Permanente Journal, 17(2), 61–66. https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/12-085.
U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health. (2013). In National Research Council (US), Institute of Medicine (US), Woolf, S. H., Aron, L. (Eds.). Washington, DC): National Academies Press (US).
Vegetarian Dietary Patterns and Mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. (2013). JAMA Internal Medicine, 173(13), 1230–1238. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.6473.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National enforcement initiative: Preventing animal waste from contaminating surface and ground water. https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/national-enforcement-initiative-preventing-animal-waste-contaminating-surface-and-ground.
U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification. Which other factors lead to land degradation?. http://newsbox.unccd.int.
What is Veganism. http://animalrights.about.com/od/animalrights101/a/Veganism.htm.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The idea of utilitarianism, roughly, is that an action is right or morally permissible if and only if its consequences produce the greatest good for the greatest number of sentient beings. The term “good” varies depending on the type of utilitarianism: e.g., for classic utilitarianism the good is happiness; for preference utilitarianism the good is preference.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Alvaro, C. Ethical Veganism, Virtue, and Greatness of the Soul. J Agric Environ Ethics 30, 765–781 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-017-9698-z
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-017-9698-z