Skip to main content
Log in

Exploring Rational and Non-rational Dimensions of Interpersonal Complexity

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Adult Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Contemporary models of psychosocial development include domains of development for interpersonal relations and cognitive complexity. Integrating these two domains to conceptualize interpersonal complexity is a useful construct for research purposes. Furthermore, the analysis of interpersonal complexity can benefit from approaching it from both rational and non-rational dimensions. The former can be done through Jane Loevinger’s conceptualization of adult ego development while the latter can be done through Gilbert Durand’s conceptualization of the Anthropological Structures of the Imaginary. Furthermore, the Washington University Sentence Completion Test is an empirically sound instrument to test the rational aspects of interpersonal complexity while the Archetypal Test of Nine Elements is an empirically sound instrument to test the non-rational elements of it. This article will conclude with research implications and applications of approaching interpersonal complexity from both the rational and non-rational dimensions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alkoby, A., Pliskin, R., Halperin, E., & Levit-Binnun, N. (2019). An eight-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) workshop increases regulatory choice flexibility. Emotion, 19(4), 593–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, J. J., McAdams, D. P., & Sakaeda, A. R. (2005). Interpreting the good life: Growth memories in the lives of mature, happy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 203–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R. (2011). Rapprochements entre la résilience, la spiritualité et l’imaginaire durandien. Counseling et spiritualité, 30(1), 45–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R. (2014a). Quelques applications de l’imaginaire durandien à l’étude de la Famille. In K. Demasure, E. Champagne, R. Martínez de Pisón & M. Rovers (dir.) avec la collaboration de M.-R. Tannous. Family’s Many Faces—La famille au pluriel. Contemporary Family Patterns, Challenges for Christians—Les modèles familiaux contemporains, défis pour les Chrétiens (pp. 3–18). Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA : Peeters.

  • Bellehumeur, C. R. (2014b). Proposition de deux approches pour la recherche en counseling, psychothérapie et spiritualité : l’herméneutique de Paul Ricoeur et l’anthropologie de Gilbert Durand. Journal of Counselling and Spirituality, 33(2), 107–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R., & Chambers, J. (2017). Contributions of sensory anthropology and Durand’s anthropology to the symbolic study of touch and the understanding of professional boundaries in psychotherapy. In M. Rovers, M. Guirguis-Younger, & J. Malette (Eds.), Touch in helping relationships (pp. 51–68). Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R., & Carignan, L.-M. (2018). Meaning-making in the identity-intimacy paradox in couple relationships: A perspective based on Gilbert Durand’s Anthropological Structures of the imaginary. In L. Armstrong (Ed.), Existential elements of the family (pp. 63–90). Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R., Armstrong, L. L., & Bilodeau, C. (accepted). Gilbert Durand’s model of the imaginary and Second Wave Positive Psychology proposed as theoretical frameworks for enhancing arts-based psychotherapy for traumatized clients. In B. Maisha, D. Kuehn, & M. Rovers (Eds.), The creative therapies in the helping relationships.

  • Bellehumeur, C. R., Armstrong, L. L., & Kam, C. (accepted). The Archetypal Test with nine elements (AT.9) as a projective tool in the context of art psychotherapies with alexithymic clients. In B. Maisha, D. Kuehn, & M. Rovers (Eds.), The creative therapies in the helping relationships.

  • Bellehumeur, C., Lavoie, L.-C., Malette, J., Lapree, R., & Guindon, M. (2013). An empirical study of young French Quebecers’ imaginary using the archetypal test with nine elements: Exploring the links between interpersonal styles and socioeconomic status. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies, 7(3), 11–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellehumeur, C. R., Bilodeau, C., & Yeung, W. (2017). An anthropological examination of virtues and character strengths and wellbeing: Imagining a good life in professional training. International Journal of Wellbeing, 7(3), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v7i3.642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bieri, J. (1955). Cognitive complexity–simplicity and predictive behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 263–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blasi, A. (1988). Identity and the development of the self. In D. K. Lapsley & F. C. Power (Eds.), Self, ego and identity: Integrative approaches (pp. 226–242). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Braga, C. (2007). “Imagination”, “imaginaire”, “imaginal”: Three concepts for defining creative fantasy. Journal of the Study of Religious and Ideologies, 16(6), 59–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burleson, B. R. (2007). Constructivism: A general theory of communication skill. In B. B. Whaley & W. Samter (Eds.), Explaining communication: Contemporary theories and exemplars (pp. 105–128). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burleson, B. R., & Caplan, S. E. (1998). Cognitive complexity. In J. C. McCroskey, J. A. Daly, M. M. Martin, & M. J. Beatty (Eds.), Communication and personality: Trait perspectives (pp. 230–286). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bursik, K. (1991). Adaptation to divorce and ego development in adult women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 300–306.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, L. D. (1991). Sex differences in the course of personality development: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 252–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, L. D. (1998). Age trends in personality development: A quantitative review. In P. M. Westenberg, A. Blasi, & L. D. Cohn (Eds.), Personality development: Theoretical, empirical and clinical investigations of Loevinger’s conception of ego development (pp. 133–143). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook-Greuter, S. (1999). Post autonomous ego development: A study of its nature and measurement (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 6-B.

  • Cook-Greuter, S. R. (2004). Making the case for a developmental perspective. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(7), 275–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, R. (2003). Lazarus, come out!: Why faith needs imagination. Ottawa, ON: Novalis Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, D. H., McMahon, T. J., Luthar, S. L., & Suchman, N. E. (2012). Sensation seeking, coping with stress, and readiness to engage in therapy: Does ego development influence the psychosocial functioning of substance-abusing mothers? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82, 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01146.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delia, J. G., Clark, R. A., & Switzer, D. E. (1974). Cognitive complexity and impression formation in informal social interactions. Speech Monographs, 41, 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637757409375854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, M. K., Ruegger, L. K., Tiegreen, S. B., & Kurtz, J. E. (2017). Ego development and the internalization of conflict in young adults. Journal of Adult Development, 24, 40–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durand, G. (1960/1992). Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire: Introduction à l’archétypologie générale. Paris: Dunod.

  • Durand, G. (1980). L’Âme tigrée, les pluriels de Psyché, coll. « Mediations » no. 208, Paris: Denoël/Gonthier.

  • Durand, Y. (1988). L’exploration de l’imaginaire. Paris: L’Espace bleu - Bibliothèque de l’imaginaire/Collection dirigée par G. Durand.

  • Durand, G. (1999). The anthropological structures of the imaginary (M. Sankey & J. Hatten, Trans.). Moorooka, Brisbane: Boombana Publications.

  • Durand, Y. (2005). Une technique d’étude de l’imaginaire: L’AT.9. Paris: Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duys, D. K., & Hedstrom, S. M. (2000). Basic counselor skills training and counselor cognitive complexity. Counselor Education and Supervision, 40, 8–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Einstein, D., & Lanning, K. (1998). Shame, guilt, ego development and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Personality, 66, 555–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith. New York: Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A. (1996). The big five versus the big four. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 303–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00033-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gfellner, B. M. (1986). Ego development and moral development in relation to age and grade level during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15(2), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02141735.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore, J. M., & Durkin, K. (2001). A critical review of the validity of ego development theory and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77(3), 541–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, V. L., & Ziegler, L. (1998). A test of relationships in a model of organizational cognitive complexity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 371–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granello, D. H. (2010). Cognitive complexity among practicing counselors: How thinking changes with experience. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88, 92–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heck, E. J., & Davis, C. S. (1973). Differential expression of empathy in a counseling analogue. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 20, 101–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1987). Two conceptions of maturity examined in the findings of a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 531–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helson, R., & Roberts, B. W. (1994). Ego development and personality change in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 911–920. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.911.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hogansen, J., & Lanning, K. (2001). Five factors in sentence completion test categories: Toward rapprochement between trait and maturational approaches to personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 449–462. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2001.2331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, R. R. (1980). Loevinger’s measure of ego development: Reliability and national norms for male and female short forms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 909–920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppe, C. (1972). Ego development and conformity behavior. Doctoral dissertation, Washington University.

  • Hy, L. X., & Loevinger, J. (1996). Measuring ego development (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, C., James, J., & Potter, I. (2017). An exploration of the validity and potential of adult ego development for enhancing understandings of school leadership. School Leadership & Management, 37(4), 372–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P., Pals, J. L., & Westenberg, P. M. (1998). Personality prototypes and ego development: Conceptual similarities and relations in adult women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), 1093–1108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.1093.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 865–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (2001). How the way we talk can change the way we work: Seven languages for transformation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (2009). Immunity to change: How to overcome it and unlock potential in yourself and your organization. Boston: Harvard Business Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A., Scollon, C. K., Ramsey, C., & Williams, T. (2000). Stories of life transition: Subjective well-being and ego development in parents of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 509–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurtz, J. E., & Tiegreen, S. B. (2005). Matters of conscience and conscientiousness: The place of ego development in the five factor model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85(3), 312–317. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8503_07.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambie, G. W. (2007). The contribution of ego development level to burnout for school counsellors: Implications for professional school counselling. Journal of Counselling and Development, 85(1), 82–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambie, G. W., Ieva, K. P., Mullen, P. R., & Hayes, B. G. (2011). Ego development, ethical decision-making, and legal and ethical knowledge in school counselors. Journal of Adult Development, 18, 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-010-9105-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin, R., Laurent, A., & Bellehumeur, R. C. (2017). Est-il judicieux d’avoir recours au Scored Archetypal Test 9 (SAT.9) afin d’enrichir l’évaluation de l’alexithymie lorsqu’on opte pour une approche évaluative multiméthode? Annales médico-psychologiques, 175, 877–881.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laprée, R. (2004). Un test archétypal pour rééquilibrer le sens. In I. Grellier, H. Strub & E. Genre (Eds.), Tradition Chrétienne et Créativité Artistique (Quand les arts stimulent le dialogue œcuménique). [Actes du congrès de théologie pratique de Rome, 2001]. Edition S.I.T.P.

  • Laprée, R. (2013). La dynamique de groupe et les structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire. In R. Laprée & C. R. Bellehumeur (Eds.), L’imaginaire durandien. Enracinements et envols en Terre d’Amérique (pp. 149–165). Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laprée, R. (2017). La sagesse des 9-12 ans: 30 vies chez monsieur Lazhar. Québec, QC: Presses de l’Université Laval.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larrue, S., & Bellehumeur, C. R. (2018). From meaning-making to finding meaning in creating a complex blended family: How to foster a healing transformation? In L. Armstrong (Ed.), Existential elements of the family (pp. 245–276). Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lilgendahl, J. P., Helson, R., & John, O. P. (2013). Does ego development increase during midlife? The effects of openness and accommodative processing of difficult events. Journal of Personality, 81, 403–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, H. N. (2000). The scientific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1(2), 27–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development: Conceptions and theories. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1993). Ego development: Questions of method and theory. Psychological Inquiry, 4(1), 56–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1994). Has psychology lost its conscience? Journal of Personality Assessment, 62, 2–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1998). Technical foundations for measuring ego development: The Washington university sentence completion test. East Sussex: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J., & Wessler, R. (1970). Measuring ego development (Vol. 1). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J., Wessler, R., & Redmore, C. (1970). Measuring ego development (Vol. 2). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manners, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). A critical review of the validity of ego development theory and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77(2), 541–567.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meier, A., & Boivin, M. (2011). Counselling and therapy techniques. Theory and practice. Thousands Oak, California: Sage Publications Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirali, M. S. (2016). Investigation and comparison of relation between levels of ego development and moral development on delinquent and normal adolescents. Master’s thesis, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2984.7124.

  • Morin, E. (2005). Introduction à la pensée complexe, coll. « Points/Essais » (no 534). Paris, France: Seuil.

  • Murdock, N. L. (2013). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, T. T. (2014). Image of God, resilience, and the imaginary: A study among Vietnamese immigrants who have experienced loss (Doctoral dissertation). Saint Paul University, Ottawa, Canada.

  • Nguyen, T. T., Bellehumeur, C. R., & Malette, J. (2018). Images of God and the imaginary in the face of loss: A quantitative research on Vietnamese immigrants living in Canada. Mental Health, Religion & Culture. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2018.1499715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orr, D. P., & Ingersoll, G. M. (1995). The contribution of level of cognitive complexity and pubertal timing to behavioral risk in young adolescents. Pediatrics, 95(4), 528–533.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pourhosein, R., & Ghanbari, S. (2016). Study on relation of ego development level with happiness and self-esteem in delinquent and normal adolescent girls (Research Report, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3705.6088.

  • Reams, J. (2014). A brief overview of developmental theory, or what I learned in the FOLA course. Integral Review, 10(1), 122–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saint-Arnaud, Y. (2002). La guérison par la Plaisir. Montréal, Québec: Novalis.

    Google Scholar 

  • St-Arnaud, Y. (1989). Les petits groupes, Participation et communication. Montréal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal et Les Éditions du CIM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, L. H., & Selman, R. L. (1998). Ego development and interpersonal development in young adulthood: A between model comparison. In P. M. Westenberg, A. Blasi, & L. D. Cohn (Eds.), Personality development: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical investigations of Loevinger’s conception of ego development (pp. 181–202). Mahwah, NJ, USA: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starrett, R. (1983). The conceptual commonality between impulsiveness as a personality trait and as an ego development stage. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(83)90148-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, M., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2015). Change in ego development, coping, and symptomatology from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 41, 110–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G. E., & McCullough, L. (1987). The Washington University Sentence Completion Test compared with other measures of adult ego development. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1189–1194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, N., Ward, L., & Denson, L. (2013). Personality preferences and their relationship to ego development in Australian leadership program participants. Journal of Adult Development, 20, 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9171-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, N., Ward, L., & Denson, L. (2015). Promoting post-conventional consciousness in leaders: Australian community leadership programs. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(2), 238–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.11.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welfare, D. E., & Borders, D. (2010). Counselor cognitions: General and domain-specific complexity. Counselor Education and Supervision, 49, 162–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westenberg, P. M., & Block, J. (1993). Ego development and individual differences in personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 792–800. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.792.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westenberg, P. M., & Gjerde, P. F. (1999). Ego development during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood: A 9-year longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 233–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xiberras, M. (2002). La pratique de l’imaginaire. Lecture de Gilbert Durand. Québec: Les Presses de l’Université Laval.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, W. P. W. (2018). Imaginary, spirituality and subjective well-being of second-generation Chinese Canadians: Exploring the lived experience of well-being in a bicultural environment (doctoral dissertation). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Saint Paul University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Youngvorst, L. J., & Jones, S. M. (2017). The influence of cognitive complexity, empathy, and mindfulness on person-centered message evaluations. Communication Quarterly, 65(5), 549–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M., Xin, Z., & Lin, C. (2012). Measures of cognitive complexity and its development in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 25, 91–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zilbermann, K. L. (1984). Ego development and patterns of family interaction (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. http://search.proquest.com/docview/303332743?accountid=8203.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christopher Kam.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kam, C., Bellehumeur, C.R. Exploring Rational and Non-rational Dimensions of Interpersonal Complexity. J Adult Dev 28, 171–181 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09368-8

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09368-8

Keywords

Navigation