Abstract
Using three waves of data (1998, 2000, 2002) on 1,325 emerging adults, we examined depressive symptoms and life satisfaction among a diverse group of high school dropouts and graduates. Emerging adults who left school without graduating were significantly more depressed and reported lower life satisfaction than graduates at the time of their expected graduation (T1), but these differences were nonsignificant 4 years later (T3). Working within an ecological developmental framework (Bronfenbrenner 1977, 1986), we found that graduation status, household composition, family general and transition specific support, peer support, and adolescent attachment styles protected against adverse mental health consequences at T1. However, only parent and peer support and attachment predicted changes in depressive symptoms and life satisfaction from T1 to T3.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2003). Fact sheet: The impact of education on: Personal income and employment. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480.
Aseltine, R. H., Gore, S., & Colten, M. E. (1994). Depression and the social developmental context of adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 252–263.
Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1991). Family structure, parental practices and high school completion. American Sociological Review, 56, 309–320.
Beauvais, F., Chavez, E. L., Oetting, E. R., Deffenbacher, J. L., & Cornell, G. R. (1996). Drug use, violence, and victimization among White American, Mexican American, and American Indian dropouts, students with academic problems, and students in good academic standing. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(3), 292–299.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss. Vol. 2: Separation: anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52, 664–678.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723–742.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture re-conceptualized in developmental perspective: A bio-ecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568–586.
Chan, C., Kato, K., Davenport, E. C., & Guven, K. (April 2003). Analysis of subsequent educational decisions of high school dropouts and their life outcomes. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, April 2003. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 478991.
Collins, W. A., & Laursen, B. (2004). Changing relationships, changing youth: Interpersonal contexts of adolescent development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 24, 55–62.
Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 644–663.
Cutrona, C. E. (1989). Ratings of social support by adolescents and adult informants: Degree of correspondence and prediction of depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 723–730.
DeFronzo, R., Panzarella, C., & Butler, A. C. (2001). Attachment, support seeking, and adaptive inferential feedback: Implications for psychological health. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 8, 48–52.
Dillon, C. O., Liem, J. H., & Gore, S. (2003). Navigating disrupted transitions: Getting back on track after dropping out of high school. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 429–440.
Ekstrom, R. B., Goertz, M. E., Pollack, J. M., & Rock, D. A. (1986). Who drops out of high school and why? Findings from a national study. Teachers College Record, 87(3), 356–373.
Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 123–151.
Franklin, C., & Streeter, C. L. (1992). Social support and psychoeducational interventions with middle class dropout youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 9, 131–153.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 103–115.
Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., & Colten, M. E. (1992). Social structure, life stress and depressive symptoms in a high school-aged population. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 97–113.
Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., Colten, M. E., & Lin, B. (1997). Life after high school: Development, stress, and well being. In I. H. Gotlib & B. Wheaton (Eds.), Stress and adversity over the life source: Trajectories and turning points. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Helsen, M., Vollegergh, W., & Meeus, W. (2000). Social support from parents and friends and emotional problems in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 319–335.
Herzog, A. R., Franks, M. M., Markus, H. R., & Holmberg, D. (1998). Activities and well-being in older age: Effects of self-concept and educational attainment. Psychology and Aging, 13, 179–185.
Holahan, C. J., Valentiner, D. P., & Moos, R. H. (1994). Parental support and psychological adjustment during the transition to young adulthood in a college sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 215–223.
Hussong, A. M. (2000). Perceived peer context and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 391–415.
Kaplan, D. S., Damphousse, K. R., & Kaplan, H. B. (1994). Mental health implications of not graduating from high school. Journal of Experimental Education, 63(2), 105–123.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R., et al. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Journal of the American Medical Association, 289(23), 3095–3105.
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12 month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the US National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.
Kohout, F. J., Berkman, L. F., Evans, D. A., & Cornoni-Huntley, J. (1993). Two shorter forms of the CES-D depression symptoms index. Journal of Aging and Health, 5, 179–193.
Kortering, L. J., Hess, R. S., & Braziel, P. M. (1997). School dropout. In G. G. Bear, K. M. Minke, & A. Thomas (Eds.), Children’s needs II: Development, problems, and alternatives (pp. 511–521). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
La Greca, A. M., & Harrison, H. M. (2005). Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety and depression? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 49–61.
Liem, J. H., Dillon, C. O., & Gore, S. (2001). Mental health consequences associated with dropping out of high school. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED457502).
Liem, J. H., Kahn, V. D., Frye, A., & Gore, S. (2008). Depressive symptoms, gender, and support from parents and peers during emerging adulthood (Manuscript submitted for publication).
Lopez, F. G., Mitchell, P., & Gormley, B. (2002). Adult attachment and college student distress: Test of a meditational model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 460–467.
Ma, C. Qu., & Huebner, E. S. (2008). Attachment relationships and adolescents’ life satisfaction: Some relationships matter more to girls than boys. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 177–190.
McCaul, E. J., Donaldson, G. A., Coladarci, T., & David, W. E. (1992). Consequences of dropping out of school: Findings from high school and beyond. Journal of Educational Research, 85(4), 198–207.
Mikulincer, M., & Florian, V. (1998). The relationship between adult attachment styles and emotional and cognitive reactions to stressful events. In J. A. Simplson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 143–163). Guilford Press: New York, NY.
Murphy, B., & Bates, G. W. (1997). Adult attachment style and vulnerability to depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 835–844.
Ou, S. (2008). Do GED recipients differ from graduates and school dropouts? Findings from an inner-city cohort. Urban Education, 43, 83–117.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A new self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Roberts, R. E., Andrews, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Hops, H. (1990). Assessment of depression in adolescents using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 122–128.
Roberts, J. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Kassel, J. D. (1996). Adult attachment security and symptoms of depression: The mediating roles of dysfunctional attitudes and low self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 310–320.
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1984). Components of depressed mood in married men and women: The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. American Journal of Epidemiology, 119, 997–1004.
Rumberger, R. W., Ghatak, R., Poulos, G., Ritter, P. L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1990). Family influences on dropout behavior in one California high school. Sociology of Education, 63, 283–299.
Shaver, P. R., & Hazan, C. (1994). Attachment. In A. Weber & J. Harvey (Eds.), Perspectives on close relationships (pp. 110–130). New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., & Nelligan, J. S. (1992). Support seeking and support giving within couples in an anxiety-provoking situation: The role of attachment styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 434–446.
Streeter, C. L., & Franklin, C. (1991). Psychological and family differences between middle class and low income dropouts: A discriminant analysis. The High School Journal, 74, 211–219.
Suldo, S. M., Riley, K. N., & Shaffer, E. J. (2006). Academic correlates of children and adolescents’ life satisfaction. School Psychology International, 27, 567–582.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
United States Department of Labor. (2003, June). Work activity of 2002 high school graduates. Washington, DC: United States Department of Labor. Available: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/hsgec.toc.htm.
Veit, C. T., & Ware, J. E. (1983). The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 730–742.
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., & Zakalik, R. A. (2005). Adult attachment, social self-efficacy, self-disclosure, loneliness, and subsequent depression for freshman college students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 602–614.
Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Younge, S. L., Oetting, E. R., & Deffenbacher, J. L. (1996). Correlations among maternal rejection, dropping out of school, and drug use in adolescents: A pilot study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52(1), 96–102.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Boston area high schools, adolescents, and parents who participated in this study. This research was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health (RO1-MH55626), Susan Gore, P.I. and the William T. Grant Foundation (98190598), Robert Aseltine and Joan Liem, Co-PIs.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liem, J.H., Lustig, K. & Dillon, C. Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction Among Emerging Adults: A Comparison of High School Dropouts and Graduates. J Adult Dev 17, 33–43 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9076-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9076-9