Abstract
In studies that assess perceptions of autistic people by non-autistic people, researchers often ask participants to review vignettes depicting fictional autistic characters. However, few studies have investigated whether non-autistic peers accurately identify these hypothetical individuals as being on the autism spectrum. Accurately ascribing autism as a cause of depicted behaviors likely influences perceptions about autistic peers. In this study, 469 college students (Mage = 18.62; 79.3% female) ascribed cause(s) of an autistic peers’ behaviors as depicted in a written vignette. We reviewed and categorized open-ended responses into 16 categories. Non-autistic college students primarily attributed an autistic vignette character’s behavior to non-autistic origins. The most commonly ascribed causes of behavior were: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (55.4%), inattention symptoms (20.9%), autism (12.8%), generalized anxiety disorder (11.7%), hyperactivity (11.3%), an unspecified diagnosis (10.7%), an environmental influence (9.6), anxiety or insecurity (8.3%), irritability or anger or annoyance (6.0%), social anxiety disorder (5.3%), and learning disorder (5.1%). Additional ascribed causes include other mental health diagnoses; environmental stressors; and cognitive, emotional, behavioral, biological, or personality characteristics/etiologies. Non-autistic young adults may not always recognize their autistic peers as autistic, which may affect acceptance and inclusion. Future anti-stigma interventions should assess the impact of helping non-autistic peers to accurately identify and better understand behaviors associated with autism. Additionally, autism-focused researchers using vignettes should assess participants’ awareness of the character as autistic and interpret their findings with this in mind.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.) https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.
Beatty, P. C., & Willis, G. B. (2007). Research Synthesis: The Practice of Cognitive Interviewing. Public Opinion Quarterly, 71 (2), 287–311. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm006.
Campbell, J. M. (2008). Brief report: Reliability and validity of the Shared activities Questionnaire as a measure of middle school students’ attitudes toward autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1598–1604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0534-6.
Causton-Theoharis, J., Ashby, C., & Cosier, M. (2009). Islands of loneliness: Exploring social interaction through the autobiographies of individuals with autism. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 47(2), 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-47.2.84.
Chan, D. V., Doran, J. D., & Galobardi, O. D. (2022). Beyond friendship: The spectrum of social participation of autistic adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53, 424–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05441-1.
Chew, B. L., Jensen, S. A., & Rosén, L. A. (2009). College students’ attitudes toward their ADHD peers. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(3), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709333347.
de Beor, A., & Pijl, S. J. (2016). The acceptance and rejection of peers with ADHD and ASD in general secondary education. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(3), 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2014.958812.
Dean, M., Harwood, R., & Kasari, C. (2017). The art of camouflage: Gender differences in the social behaviors of girls and boys with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 21(6), 678–689. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316671845.
DeBrabander, K. M., Morrison, K. E., Jones, D. R., Faso, D. J., Chmielewski, M., & Sasson, N. J. (2019). Do first impressions of autistic adults differ between autistic and nonautistic observers? Autism in Adulthood, 1(4), 250–257. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2019.0018.
Dickter, C. L., Burk, J. A., Zeman, J. L., & Taylor, S. C. (2020). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward autistic adults. Autism in Adulthood, 2(2), 144–151. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2019.0023.
Findler, L., Vilchinsky, N., & Werner, S. (2007). The Multidimensional attitudes Scale towards persons with disabilities (MAS): Construction and validation. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 50(3), 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/00343552070500030401.
Gardiner, E., & Iarocci, G. (2014). Students with autism spectrum disorder in the university context: Peer acceptance predicts intention to volunteer. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1008–1017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1950-4.
Gargaro, B. A., Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Tonge, B. J., & Sheppard, D. M. (2011). Autism and ADHD: How far have we come in the comorbidity debate? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1081–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.002.
Gelbar, N. W., Shefcyk, A., & Reichow, B. (2015). A comprehensive survey of current and former college students with autism spectrum disorders. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 88(1), 45.
Gillespie-Lynch, K., Brooks, P. J., Someki, F., Obeid, R., Shane-Simpson, C., Kapp, S. K., Daou, N., & Smith, D. S. (2015) Changing college students’ conceptions of autism: An online training to increase knowledge and decrease stigma. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 45(8), 2553–2566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2422-9.
Gillespie-Lynch, K., Daou, N., Obeid, R., Reardon, S., Khan, S., & Goldknopf, E. J. (2021). What contributes to stigma towards autistic university students and students with other diagnoses? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 459–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04556-7.
Griffin, W. B. (2019). Peer perceptions of students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Development Disorders, 34(3), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357618800035.
Lebowitz, M. S. (2016). Stigmatization of ADHD: A developmental review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20(3), 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712475211.
Lipson, J., Taylor, C., Burke, J. A., & Dickter, C. L. (2020). Perceptions of and behavior toward university students with autism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 42(5), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2020.1785468.
MacLeod, A., Allan, J., Lewis, A., & Robertson, C. (2018). Here I come again’: The cost of success for higher education students diagnosed with autism. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22(6), 683–697. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.1396502.
Masuch, T. V., Bea, M., Alm, B., Deibler, P., & Sobanski, E. (2018). Internalized stigma, anticipated discrimination and perceived public stigma in adults with ADHD. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 11(2), 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-018-0274-9.
Matthews, N. L., Ly, A. R., & Goldberg, W. A. (2015). College students’ perceptions of peers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1), 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2195-6.
Mazurek, M. O. (2014). Loneliness, friendship, and well-being in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(3), 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312474121.
Meeks, L. (2014). College Students’ Perceptions of and Behavioral. Intentions Toward a Popular Media Character with Qualities of Asperger Syndrome. ETD Archive. 198.
Milton, D., & Sims, T. (2016). How is a sense of well-being and belonging constructed in the accounts of autistic adults? Disability & Society, 31(4), 520–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2016.1186529.
Morrison, K. E., DeBrabander, K. M., Faso, D. J., & Sasson, N. J. (2019). Variability in first impressions of autistic adults made by neurotypical raters is driven more by characteristics of the raters than by the characteristics of autistic adults. Autism, 23(7), 1817–1829. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361318824104.
Mueller, A. K., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Koerts, J., & Tucha, L. (2012). Stigma in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, 4, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0085-3.
Müller, E., Schuler, A., & Yates, G. B. (2008). Social challenges and supports from the perspective of individuals with Asperger syndrome and other autism spectrum disabilities. Autism, 12(2), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361307086664.
Nevill, R. E. A., & White, S. W. (2011). College students’ openness toward autism spectrum disorders: Improving peer acceptance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(12), 1619–1628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1189-x.
New York: Academic Press, 184–187.
Orsmond, G. I., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Sterzing, P. R., & Anderson, K. A. (2013). Social participation among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(11), 2710–2719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1833-8.
Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P. G., & Stafford, T. (2019). Co-occurrence of ASD and ADHD traits in an adult population. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(12), 1407–1415. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717720720.
Paulson, J. F., Buermeyer, C., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2005). Social rejection and ADHD in young adults: An analogue experiment. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8(3), 127–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054705277203.
process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 10).
Ragins, B. R. (2008). Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. The Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 194–215. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2008.27752724.
Reiter, S., & Vitani, T. (2007). Inclusion of pupils with autism: The effect of an intervention program on the regular pupils’ burnout. attitudes and quality of mediation. Autism, 11(4), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361307078130.
Romualdez, A. M., Heasman, B., Walker, Z., Davies, J., & Remington, A. (2021). People might understand me better: Diagnostic disclosure experiences of autistic individuals in the workplace. Autism in Adulthood, 3(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0063.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings. Distortions in the attribution.
Ross, L. D., Amabile, T. M., & Steinmetz, J. L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(7), 485–494.
Sasson, N. J., & Morrison, K. E. (2019). First impressions of adults with autism improve with diagnostic disclosure and increased autism knowledge of peers. Autism, 23(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317729526.
Sasson, N. J., Faso, D. J., Nugent, J., Lovell, S., Kennedy, D. P., & Grossman, R. B. (2017). Neurotypical peers are less willing to interact with those with autism based on thin slice judgments. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40700.
Schneid, I., & Raz, A. E. (2020). The mask of autism: Social camouflaging and impression management as coping/normalization from the perspectives of autistic adults. Social Science & Medicine, 248, 112826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112826.
Silton, N. R., & Fogel, J. (2012). Enhancing positive behavioral intentions of typical children towards children with autism. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies: The Official Journal of the International Institute for the Advanced Studies of Psychotherapy and Applied Mental Health, 12(2), 139–158.
Sosnowy, C., Silverman, C., Shattuck, P., & Garfield, T. (2019). Setbacks and successes: How young adults on the autism spectrum seek friendship. Autism in Adulthood, 1(1), 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2018.0009.
Thompson, A. C., & Lefler, E. K. (2016). ADHD stigma among college students. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 8, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-015-0179-9.
Underhill, J. C., Ledford, V., & Adams, H. (2019). Autism stigma in communication classrooms: Exploring peer attitudes and motivations toward interacting with atypical students. Communication Education, 68(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2019.1569247.
van Steensel, F. J. A., Bögels, S. M., & de Bruin, E. I. (2013). Psychiatric comorbidity in children with autism spectrum disorders: A comparison with children with ADHD. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 368–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9587-z.
Wei, X., Yu, J. W., Shattuck, P., McCracken, M., & Blackorby, J. (2013). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) participation among college students with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1700-z.
Whitlock, A., Fulton, K., Lai, M. C., Pellicano, E., & Mandy, W. (2020). Recognition of girls on the autism spectrum by primary school educators: An experimental study. Autism Research, 13, 13. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2316.
Willis, G. B., & Artino, A. R. Jr. (2013). What do our respondents think we’re asking? Using Cognitive interviewing to improve medical education surveys. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 5(3), 353–356. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-13-00154.1.
Wozniak, R. H., Leezenbaum, N. B., Northrup, J. B., West, K. L., & Iverson, J. M. (2017). Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews in Cognitive Science, 8, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1426.
Acknowledgements
No funds, grants, or other support was received. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The authors graciously acknowledge all of the participants in this study without whom this research would not be possible. Additionally, we thank Cassidy Hyman, a research assistant at the University of Alabama for her dedicated time and diligence in accurate coding of the research data presented in this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All procedures were performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval for this study was granted by the local ethics committee (IRB # 20-07-3710).
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained by all individual participants.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Birnschein, A.M., Ward, O.F., McClain, A.B. et al. Qualitative Ascriptions of Autistic Behavior by Non-Autistic College Students. J Autism Dev Disord (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06248-y
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06248-y