Abstract
Research shows many positive effects from physical exercise. The present study examined the impact of a structured physical exercise program compared to treatment as usual on the gross motor skills of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants included 20 children, from 4 to 7 years old, who were assigned to two groups; an experimental group (n = 10) who received a structured physical exercise program for 60-min sessions, three times a week for eight weeks, and a control group (n = 10) who received conventional physiotherapy. Gross motor skills were assessed with the Abbreviated Development Scale -3 before and after the physical exercise program. The experimental group exhibited significant improvements in gross motor skills compared to the control group. This study suggests that structured physical exercise programs can improve gross motor skills in children with ASD.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Materials Availability
The data can be consulted to the corresponding author via email at piedadrociolermacastano@fumc.edu.co.
References
Abdel Karim, A. E., & Mohammed, A. (2015). Effectiveness of sensory integration program in motor skills in children with autism. Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics, 16(4), 375–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmhg.2014.12.008
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders V. (5a. Ed).
Arslan, E., Ince, G., & Akyüz, M. (2020). Effects of a 12-week structured circuit exercise program on physical fitness levels of children with autism spectrum condition and typically developing children. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 68(4), 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2020.1819943
Bad’iah, A., Mendri, N. K., Palestin, B., & Nugroho, H. S. W. (2021). The effect of applied behavior analysis on the gross motor development of autistic children. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 9(T4), 55–59. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2021.5754
Ballesteros, S., Piccardi, L., & Goh, J. O. S. (2022). Editorial: Effects of physical exercise on brain and cognitive functioning. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.939112
Battaglia, G., Agro’, G., Alesi, M., Cataldo, P., Palma, A., & Alesi, M. (2019). Influence of a specific aquatic adapted physical activity in a child with autism spectrum disorders: A case study. Life Span and Disability, 22, 155–172.
Bremer, E., Balogh, R., & Lloyd, M. (2015). Effectiveness of a fundamental motor skill intervention for 4-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Autism: the International Journal of Research and Practice, 19(8), 980–991. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361314557548
Bremer, E., & Lloyd, M. (2016). School-based fundamental-motor-skill intervention for children with autism-like characteristics: An exploratory study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 33(1), 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1123/APAQ.2015-0009
Bowling, A., Slavet, J., Miller, D. P., Haneuse, S., Beardslee, W., & Davison, K. (2017). Cybercycling effects on classroom behavior in children with behavioral health disorders: An RCT. Pediatrics, 139(2), e20161985. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1985
Busti Ceccarelli, S., Ferrante, C., Gazzola, E., Marzocchi, G. M., Nobile, M., Molteni, M., & Crippa, A. (2020). Fundamental motor skills intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder: A 10-year narrative review. Children, (basel, Switzerland), 7(11), 250. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7110250
Colebourn, J. A., Golub-Victor, A. C., & Paez, A. (2017). Developing overhand throwing skills for a child with autism with a collaborative approach in school-based therapy. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 29(3), 262–269. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000405
Colombo- Dougovito, A. M., & Block, M. E. (2019). Fundamental motor skill interventions for children and adolescents on the autism spectrum: A literature review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 6, 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-019-00161-2
Crissien-Quiroz, E., Fonseca-Angulo, R., Núñez-Bravo, N., Noguera-Machacón, L. M., & Sanchez-Guette, L. (2017). Sensorimotor characteristics in children with autism spectrum disorder. Revista Latinoamericana De Hipertensión, 12(5), 119–124.
Dong, L., Shen, B., Pang, Y., Zhang, M., Xiang, Y., Xing, Y., Wright, M., Li, D., & Bo, J. (2021). FMS effects of a motor program for children with autism spectrum disorders. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 128(4), 1421–1442. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125211010053
Downey, R., & Rapport, M. J. (2012). Motor activity in children with autism: A review of current literature. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 24(1), 2–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0b013e31823db95f
Edwards, J., Jeffrey, S., May, T., Rinehart, N. J., & Barnett, L. M. (2017). Does playing a sports active video game improve object control skills of children with autism spectrum disorder? Journal of Sport and Health Science, 6(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2016.09.004
Ferguson, L. (2010). The effects of an adapted physical activity program on motor performance and behavior of children with autism spectrum disorder. [Master's Thesis] Stellenbosch University.
Ferreira, J. P., Andrade-Toscano, C. V., Rodrigues, A. M., Furtado, G. E., Barros, M. G., Wanderley, R. S., & Carvalho, H. M. (2018). Effects of a Physical Exercise Program (PEP-Aut) on autistic children’s stereotyped behavior, metabolic and physical activity profiles, physical fitness, and health-related quality of life: A study protocol. Frontiers in Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00047
Ferreira, M. L., & Loyacono, N. (2021). Rationale of an advanced integrative approach applied to autism spectrum disorder: Review. Discussion and Proposal. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 11(6), 514. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11060514
Fessia, G., Manni, D., Contini, L., & Astorino, F. (2018). Strategies of planned physical activity in autism: Systematic review. Review of Public Health, 20(3), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.15446/rsap.v20n3.63040
Gabis, L. V., Attia, O. L., Roth-Hanania, R., & Foss-Feig, J. (2020). Motor delay—An early and more common “red flag” in girls rather than boys with an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 104, 103702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103702
Gandotra, A., Kótyuk, E., Szekely, A., Kasos, K., Csirmaz, L., & Cserjesi, R. (2020). Fundamental movement skills in children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 78(3), 101632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101632
Gómez, M., Valero, A., Penalver, I., & Velazco, M. (2008). El trabajo de la motricidad en la clase de educación física con niños autistas a través de la adaptación del lenguaje Benson Schaeffer. Revista Iberoamericana De Educación, 46(1), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.35362/rie460722
Gulati, K., Bhargav, P. H., Abraham, S. E., & Bhargav, H. (2020). Yoga: A multi-dimensional therapeutic approach to autism spectrum disorder. In: Handbook of research on evidence-based perspectives on the psychophysiology of yoga and its applications (pp. 361–390). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-3254-6.ch021.
Hassani, F., Shahrbanian, S., Shahidi, S. H., & Sheikh, M. (2020). Playing games can improve physical performance in children with autism. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 68(2), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2020.1752995
Healy, S., Nacario, A., Braithwaite, R. E., & Hopper, C. (2018). The effect of physical activity interventions on youth with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis. Autism Research, 11(6), 818–833. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1955
Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
Kalaichandran, K., Swarnakumari, P., & Sankar, R. (2021). Occupational therapy and yoga for children with autism spectrum disorder for rehabilitation professionals. International Journal of Current Research and Review, 13(7), 70–73. https://doi.org/10.31782/IJCRR.2021.13724
Ketcheson, L., Felzer-Kim, I. T., & Hauck, J. L. (2021). Promoting adapted physical activity regardless of language ability in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92(4), 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1788205
Ketcheson, L., Hauck, J., & Ulrich, D. (2017). The effects of an early motor skill intervention on motor skills, levels of physical activity, and socialization in young children with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Autism: the International Journal of Research and Practice, 21(4), 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316650611
Ketcheson, L., Hauck, J. L., & Ulrich, D. (2018). The levels of physical activity and motor skills in young children with and without autism spectrum disorder, aged 2–5 years. Autism: the International Journal of Research and Practice, 22(4), 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316683889
Kruger, G. R., Silveira, J. R., & Marques, A. C. (2019). Motor skills of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Rev Bras Cineantropom Desempenho Hum, 21(6), e60515. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-0037.2019v21e60515
Lang, R., Koegel, L. K., Ashbaugh, K., Register, A., Ence, W., & Smith, W. (2010). Physical exercise and individuals with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 565–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RASD.2010.01.006
Langdon, J. L., & Schlote, R. J. (2015). Therapeutic physical activity for children with an autism spectrum disorder. In: L. Li, & S. Zhang. (Eds.) Therapeutic physical activities for people with disability (pp. 285–309). Nova Science Publishers.
Larbán, J. (2012). Early autism, mirror neurons, empathy, sensory integration, intersubjectivity. Notebooks on Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 54, 79–91.
Lee, J., Chang, S. H., & Jolin, J. (2020). Developing social skills of children with autism spectrum disorder for physical activity using a movement-based program. Journal of Motor Learning and Development. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2020-0017
Lourenço, C., Esteves, D., Nunes, C., & Liu, T. (2020). Motor proficiency of children with autism spectrum disorder and typically developing children in Portugal. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 20(3), 1491–1496. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2020.03205
Lombardo, M. V., & Mandelli, V. (2022). Rethinking our concepts and assumptions about autism. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 903489. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.903489
Luque A. (2016). Relationship between physical exercise and cognitive function, a behavioral and electrophysiological approach. [Doctoral Thesis] University of Granada. Retrieved June 24, 2022, from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/tesis?codigo=56477
MacDonald, M., Lord, C., & Ulrich, D. (2013). The relationship of motor skills and adaptive behavior skills in young children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(11), 1383–1390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.07.020
Mache, M. A., & Todd, T. A. (2016). Gross motor skills are related to postural stability and age in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 23, 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.01.001
Maenner, M. J., Shaw, K. A., Bakian, A. V., Bilder, D. A., Durkin, M. S., Esler, A., Furnier, S. M., Hallas, L., Hall-Lande, J., Hudson, A., Hughes, M. M., Patrick, M., Pierce, K., Poynter, J. N., Salinas, A., Shenouda, J., Vehorn, A., Warren, Z., Constantino, J. N., … Cogswell, M. E. (2021). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 Sites, United States, 2018. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(11), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7011a1
Marzouki, H., Soussi, B., Selmi, O., Hajji, Y., Marsigliante, S., Bouhlel, E., Muscella, A., Weiss, K., & Knechtle, B. (2022). Effects of aquatic training in children with autism spectrum disorder. Biology, 11(5), 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11050657
Minsalud—Ministry of Health and Social Protection, Colombia. (1993). By which the scientific, technical and administrative standards for health research are established [Resolution 8430]. Bogotá, DC: Official Gazette.
Minsalud—Ministry of Health and Social Protection. (2016). EAD-3 abbreviated development scale. Pontifical Javeriana University. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.minsalud.gov.co/sites/rid/Lists/BibliotecaDigital/RIDE/VS/PP/ENT/Escala-abreviada-de-desarrollo-3.pdf
Minsalud—Ministry of Health and Social Protection. Institute of Technological Evaluation in Health. (2015). Clinical protocol for the diagnosis, treatment and comprehensive care route for boys and girls with autism spectrum disorders. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.minsalud.gov.co/sites/rid/Lists/BibliotecaDigital/RIDE/DE/CA/Protocolo-TEA-final.pdf
Najafabadi, M. G., Sheikh, M., Hemayattalab, R., Amir, M., Rezaii, M., & Hafizi, S. (2018). The effect of SPARK on social and motor skills of children with autism. Pediatrics and Neonatology, 59(5), 481–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2017.12.005
Pan, C. Y., Tsai, C. L., & Chu, C. H. (2009). Fundamental movement skills in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(12), 1694–1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0813-5
Pan, C. Y., Chu, C. H., Tsai, C. L., Sung, M. C., Huang, C. Y., & Ma, W. Y. (2017). The impacts of physical activity intervention on physical and cognitive outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 21(2), 190–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316633562
Pusponegoro, H. D., Efar, P., Soedjatmiko, A., Soebadi, A., Firmansyah, A., Chen, H. J., & Hung, K. L. (2016). Gross motor profile and its association with socialization skills in children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics and Neonatology, 57(6), 501–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2016.02.004
Qiu, A., Adler, M., Crocetti, D., Miller, M. I., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2010). Basal ganglia shapes predict social, communication, and motor dysfunctions in boys with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(6), 539–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.02.012
Rafie, F., Shikh, M., Jalali, S., & Pourranjbar, M. (2015). Physical exercises and motor skills in autistic children. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 44(5), 724–725.
Sarabzadeh, M., Azari, B. B., & Helalizadeh, M. (2019). The effect of six weeks of Tai Chi Chuan training on the motor skills of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 23(2), 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2019.01.007
Sánchez, D. P., & Ordoñez, L. T. (2019). Physiotherapeutic interventions in the disorder of the autistic spectrum: ASD. Archivos Venezolanos De Farmacología y Terapéutica, 38(4), 412–416.
Šišková, N., Grznárová, T., Baranová, P., & Vanderka, M. (2020). Effect of the TGMD-2-based physical activity on the motor skills of healthy children and children with autism spectrum disorder at an earlier school age. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 20(5), 2574–2579. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2020.05351
Sowa, M., & Meulenbroek, R. (2012). Effects of physical exercise on autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.09.001
Toscano, C. V. A., Carvalho, H. M., & Ferreira, J. P. (2018). Exercise effects for children with autism spectrum disorder: Metabolic health, autistic traits, and quality of life. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 125(1), 126–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517743823
Vanvuchelen, M., Roeyers, H., & De Weerdt, W. (2007). Nature of motor imitation problems in school-aged boys with autism: a motor or a cognitive problem? Autism: the International Journal of Research and Practice, 11(3), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361307076846
Wainer, A. L., Arnold, Z. E., Leonczyk, C., & Valluripalli Soorya, L. (2021). Examining a stepped-care telehealth program for parents of young children with autism: A proof-of-concept trial. Molecular Autism, 12(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-021-00443-9
World Health Organization. (2022). Autism. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
World Medical Association. (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053
Won, J., Callow, D. D., Pena, G. S., Gogniat, M. A., Kommula, Y., Arnold-Nedimala, N. A., Jordan, L. S., & Smith, J. C. (2021). Evidence for exercise-related plasticity in functional and structural neural network connectivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 131, 923–940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.013
Zhao, M., & Chen, S. (2018). The effects of structured physical activity program on social interaction and communication for children with autism. BioMed Research International., 2018, 1825046. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1825046
Zeidan, J., Fombonne, E., Scorah, J., Ibrahim, A., Durkin, M. S., Saxena, S., Yusuf, A., Shih, A., & Elsabbagh, M. (2022). Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 15(5), 778–790. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2696
Funding
No funds, grants, or other support were received.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study's conception and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed by PRLC, DPMS, HPGC, LCGM, PASV, ERG, CR-C and statistical analysis was performed by CH-M. The first draft of the manuscript was written by PRLC, DPMS, ERG, CR-C, CH-M.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors state that they do not present any conflict of interest. The intervention was applied by the authors Piedad Rocio Lerma Castaño, Diana Paola Montealegre Suárez, and three students/research assistants from the physiotherapy program trained for its application.
Ethics Approval
Approval was obtained from the ethics committee (minute 01 of June 20, 2017) and the research committee (assigned code # 013004035-2017-31) of la Fundación Universitaria María Cano. This approval supports that the procedures used in this study adhere to the postulates of the Helsinki declaration (World Medical Association, 2013). The committee observed the guidelines of resolution 008430 to attribute a "minimal risk" rank, as expressed in article 11 (Minsalud, 1993).
Consent
The researchers prepared an informed consent form that included the objectives and risks of the study; it was signed by the parents of the children who agreed to participate.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Castaño, P.R.L., Suárez, D.P.M., González, E.R. et al. Effects of Physical Exercise on Gross Motor Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06031-5
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06031-5