Abstract
This study aimed to explore the rates of motor difficulties in children from the Australian Autism Biobank, and how early motor concerns impacted on children functionally. Children with autism aged 2–7 years, including 441 with a Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS-II) motor subscale and 385 with a Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) fine motor subscale were included (n total = 514; 80% male). Approximately 60% of children on the MSEL and ~ 25% on the VABS-II had clinically significant motor impairments. More children with delayed sitting and walking motor milestones had early childhood parent reported motor difficulties (p < 0.001). Early motor delays or concerns may assist identifying individuals who will likely benefit from early ongoing developmental monitoring and early support.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adolph, K. E., & Hoch, J. E. (2019). Motor development: Embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling. Annual Review of Psychology, 70(1), 141–164. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102836.
Alvares, G. A., Dawson, P. A., Dissanayake, C., Eapen, V., Gratten, J., Grove, R., … Masi, A. (2018). Study protocol for the Australian autism biobank: An international resource to advance autism discovery research. BMC Pediatrics, 18(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-018-1255-z
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®): American Psychiatric Pub.
Asperger, H. (1944). Die autistischen psychopathen im kindesalter. Archiv Für Psychiatrie Und Nervenkrankheiten, 117, 76–136.
Bremer, E., Balogh, R., & Lloyd, M. (2015). Effectiveness of a fundamental motor skill intervention for 4-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Autism, 19(8), 980–991. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361314557548
Brian, J., Bryson, S., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Smith, I. M., Szatmari, P., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2008). Clinical assessment of autism in high-risk 18-month-olds. Autism, 12(5), 433–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361308094500
Chawarska, K., Paul, R., Klin, A., Hannigen, S., Dichtel, L. E., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Parental recognition of developmental problems in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0330-8
Einspieler, C., Sigafoos, J., Bartl-Pokorny, K. D., Landa, R., Marschik, P. B., & Bölte, S. (2014). Highlighting the first 5 months of life: General movements in infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder or Rett syndrome. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(3), 286–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.12.013
Esposito, G., & Pasca, S. (2013). Motor abnormalities as a putative endophenotype for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7, 43. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00043
Esposito, G., Venuti, P., Maestro, S., & Muratori, F. (2009). An exploration of symmetry in early autism spectrum disorders: Analysis of lying. Brain and Development, 31(2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2008.04.005
Estes, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Gu, H., John, T. S., Paterson, S., Elison, J. T., . . . Schultz, R. T. (2015). Behavioral, cognitive, and adaptive development in infants with autism spectrum disorder in the first 2 years of life. Journal of neurodevelopmental disorders, 7(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-015-9117-6
Flanagan, J. E., Landa, R., Bhat, A., & Bauman, M. (2012). Head lag in infants at risk for autism: A preliminary study. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 66, 577–585. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2012.004192
Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010). Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(10), 1227–1240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3
Gernsbacher, M. A., Sauer, E. A., Geye, H. M., Schweigert, E. K., & Hill Goldsmith, H. (2008). Infant and toddler oral- and manual-motor skills predict later speech fluency in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01820.x
Gonzalez, S. L., Alvarez, V., & Nelson, E. L. (2019). Do gross and fine motor skills differentially contribute to language outcomes? a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02670
Green, D., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Simonoff, E., & Baird, G. (2009). Impairment in movement skills of children with autistic spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 51(4), 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03242.x
Jeste, S. S., Sahin, M., Bolton, P., Ploubidis, G. B., & Humphrey, A. (2008). Characterization of autism in young children with tuberous sclerosis complex. Journal of Child Neurology, 23(5), 520–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073807309788
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2(3), 217–250.
Lam, Y. Y., & Henderson, S. E. (1987). Some applications of the Henderson revision of the test of motor impairment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 57(3), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1987.tb00865.x
Landa, R., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2006). Development in infants with autism spectrum disorders: A prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 629–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01531.x
LeBarton, E. S., & Iverson, J. M. (2016). Associations between gross motor and communicative development in at-risk infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 44, 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.05.003
LeBarton, E. S., & Landa, R. J. (2019). Infant motor skill predicts later expressive language and autism spectrum disorder diagnosis. Infant Behavior and Development, 54, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.11.003
Leonard, H. C., Bedford, R., Pickles, A., Hill, E. L., & Team, B. (2015). Predicting the rate of language development from early motor skills in at-risk infants who develop autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 13, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.12.012
Leonard, H. C., & Hill, E. L. (2014). The impact of motor development on typical and atypical social cognition and language: A systematic review. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 19(3), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12055
Libertus, K., Sheperd, K. A., Ross, S. W., & Landa, R. J. (2014). Limited fine motor and grasping skills in 6-month-old infants at high risk for autism. Child Development, 85(6), 2218–2231. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12262
Licari, M. K., Alvares, G. A., Varcin, K., Evans, K. L., Cleary, D., Reid, S. L., . . . Wray, J. (2020). Prevalence of motor difficulties in autism spectrum disorder: Analysis of a population‐based cohort. Autism Research, 13(2), 298-306. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2230
Liu, T. (2012). Motor milestone development in young children with autism spectrum disorders: An exploratory study. Educational Psychology in Practice, 28(3), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2012.684340
Lloyd, M., MacDonald, M., & Lord, C. (2013). Motor skills of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 17(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311402230
Mullen, E. M. (1995). Mullen Scales of Early Learning. American Guidance Service Inc.
Nickel, L. R., Thatcher, A. R., Keller, F., Wozniak, R. H., & Iverson, J. M. (2013). Posture development in infants at heightened versus low risk for autism spectrum disorders. Infancy, 18(5), 639–661. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12025
Paquet, A., Olliac, B., Bouvard, M.-P., Golse, B., & Vaivre-Douret, L. (2016). The semiology of motor disorders in autism spectrum disorders as highlighted from a standardized neuro-psychomotor assessment. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1292. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01292
Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., Balla, D. A., & Doll, E. A. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales: survey forms manual. American Guidance Service.
Staples, K. L., MacDonald, M., & Zimmer, C. (2012). Assessment of motor behavior among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 42, 179–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394284-5.00007-3
Thurman, S. L., & Corbetta, D. (2019). Changes in posture and interactive behaviors as infants progress from sitting to walking: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 822. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00822
Walle, E. A., & Campos, J. J. (2014). Infant language development is related to the acquisition of walking. Developmental Psychology, 50(2), 336. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033238
Wilson, R. B., Enticott, P. G., & Rinehart, N. J. (2018). Motor development and delay: Advances in assessment of motor skills in autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology, 31(2), 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000541
WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, & de Onis, M. (2006). WHO Motor Development Study: Windows of achievement for six gross motor development milestones. Acta Paediatrica, 95, 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02379.x
Acknowledgments
AJOW is supported by an Investigator Grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council (APP1173896). EM was funded by a Victoria University of Wellington Summer Research Scholarship 2019/2020. The data used in this project were provided by the Autism CRC, with appropriate ethics approval. The Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism (Autism CRC) is established and supported under the Australian Government's Cooperative Research Centres Program. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Australian Autism Biobank participants and their families, the Australian Autism Biobank Team for cohort coordination and data collection (Gail Alvares, Jolene Berry, Vandhana Bharti, Dominique Cleary, Paul Dawson, Cheryl Dissanayake, Valsamma Eapen, Mira Frenk, Jacob Gratten, Rachel Grove, Maryam Haghiran, Alexis Harun, Nicole Hayes, Anjali Henders, Honey Heussler, Helen Holdsworth, Lauren Hollier, Anna Hunt, Rachel Jellett, Feroza Khan, Jodie Leslie, Anne Masi, Tiana McLaren, Candice Michael, Melanie Muniandy, Melissa Neylan, Michaela Nothard, Natalie Silove, Leanne Wallace, Andrew Whitehouse, and Naomi Wray) and the Australian Autism Biobank project contributing institutions (University of Western Australia, Sydney Children’s Hospital Network, Telethon Kids Institute, University of New South Wales, La Trobe University, Mater Medical Research Institute, University of Queensland, and PathWest).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
JER, AJOW, GAA, and MKL contributed to the study design. Data analyses were performed by JER, HW and EM. The first draft of the manuscript was written by JER, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest relevant to this article to report.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Reynolds, J.E., Whitehouse, A.J.O., Alvares, G.A. et al. Characterising the Early Presentation of Motor Difficulties in Autistic Children. J Autism Dev Disord 52, 4739–4749 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05333-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05333-w