Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is currently one of the most researched of all childhood developmental disorders and is receiving attention in many domains. The purpose of this study was to design and provide psychometric evidence for a scale that measures police officer self-efficacy for working with individuals with ASD. Psychometric properties of a scale designed to measure knowledge of ASD were also explored. Data from 620 police officers were collected and a 13-item scale was created and evaluated. Results indicated that the scale represented a unidimensional construct. Knowing more about officers’ knowledge and beliefs in their own capabilities to work with individuals with ASD can help inform future police education and training efforts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albrecht, J. F. (2019). Promoting enhanced public participation and community engagement in policing. In J. F. Albrecht (Ed.), Policing and minority communities (pp. 55–71). Cham: Springer.
American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), & National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Artino, A. R. (2012). Academic self-efficacy: From educational theory to instructional practice. Perspectives on Medical Education, 1, 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-012-0012-5.
Bahora, M., Hanafi, S., Chien, V. H., & Compton, M. T. (2008). Preliminary evidence of effects of Crisis Intervention Team training on self-efficacy and social distance. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 35, 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-007-0153-8.
Bailey, A., Barr, O., & Bunting, B. (2001). Police attitudes toward people with intellectual disability: An evaluation of awareness training. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45, 344–350. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2001.00339.x.
Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., et al. (2018). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder among children aged 8 years – Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1.
Bakare, M. O., Ebigbo, P. O., Agomoh, A. O., & Menkiti, N. C. (2008). Knowledgea bout childhood autism among health workers (KCAHW) questionnaire: Description, reliability and internal consistency. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 4(17), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-0179-4-17.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (Vol. 5, pp. 307–337). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2015). Applying the Rasch model: Fundamental measurements in the human sciences (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Broussard, B., Krishan, S., Hankerson-Dyson, D., Husbands, L., Stewart-Hutto, T., & Compton, M. T. (2011). Development and initial reliability and validity of four self-report measures used in research on interactions between police officers and individuals with mental illnesses. Psychiatry Research, 189, 458–462. https://doi.org/10.1916/j.psychres.2011.06.017.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245–276. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder data and statistics: Prevalence. Retrieved August 1, 2019, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html.
Chappell, A. T. (2007). Police academy training: Comparing across curricula. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 31, 36–56. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510810852567.
Chown, N. (2009). ‘Do you have any difficulties that I may not be aware of?’ A study of autism awareness and understanding in the UK police service. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 12, 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2010.12.2.174.
Copenhaver, A., & Tewksbury, R. (2018). Interactions between autistic individuals and law enforcement: A mixed-methods exploratory study. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44, 309–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-9452-8.
Corona, L. L., Christodulu, K. V., & Rinaldi, M. L. (2017). Investigation of school professionals’ self-efficacy for working with students with ASD: Impact of prior experience, knowledge, and training. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19, 90–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300716667604.
Crane, L., Maras, K., Hawken, T., Mulcahy, S., & Memon, A. (2016). Experiences of autism spectrum disorder and policing in England and Wales: Surveying police and the autism community. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 2028–2041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2729-1.
Debbaudt, D., & Rothman, D. (2001). Contact with individuals with autism. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 70, 20–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/e312842004-005.
Department of Justice. (2010). Americans with disabilities act: Title II regulations. Civil Rights Division. Retrieved September 19, 2019, from https://www.ada.gov.
Eun, B., & Heining-Boynton, A. L. (2007). Impact of an English-as-a-second-language professional development program. The Journal of Educational Research, 101(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.101.1.36-49.
Fan, W., & Yan, Z. (2010). Factors affecting response rates of the web survey: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.10.015.
Fida, R., Laschinger, H. K. S., & Leiter, M. P. (2018). The protective role of self-efficacy against workplace incivility and burnout in nursing: A time-lagged study. Health Care Management Review, 43, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1097/HMR.0000000000000126.
Gardner, L. B., Campbell, J. M., & Westdal, J. (2018). Descriptive analysis of law enforcement officers’ experiences with and knowledge of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49, 1278–1283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3794-4.
Harrell, E. (2017). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009–2015. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved October 2, 2019, from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/capd0915st.pdf.
Harrison, A. J., Bradshaw, L. P., Naqvi, N. C., Paff, M. L., & Campbell, J. M. (2017). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Autism Stigma and Knowledge Questionnaire (ASK-Q). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 3281–3295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3242-x.
Harrison, A. J., Slane, M. M., Hoang, L., & Campbell, J. M. (2016). An international review of autism knowledge assessment measures. Autism, 21, 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316638786.
Henshaw, M., & Thomas, S. (2012). Police encounters with people with intellectual disability: Prevalence, characteristics and challenges. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56, 620–631. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1001_6.
Helsel, P. (2017). Parents demand answers after autistic boy held on ground by officer. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from NBC News website: https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/parents-demand-answers-after-autistic-boy-held-ground-officer-n802801.
Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.12.005.
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Lauermann, F., & König, J. (2016). Teachers’ professional competence and wellbeing: Understanding the links between general pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy and burnout. Learning and Instruction, 45, 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.006.
Lim, S., & Jahng, S. (2019). Determining the number of factors using parallel analysis and its recent variants. Psychological Methods, 24(4), 452. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000230.
Linacre, J. M. (2019). WINSTEPS Rasch-Model computer programs (Manual 4.4.1). Chicago: Winsteps.com.
Louisville Metro Police Department. (2019). Mission and values. Retrieved August 19, 2019, from https://www.louisville-police.org/.
Love, A. M. A., Findley, J. A., Ruble, L. A., & McGrew, J. H. (2019a). Teacher self- efficacy for teaching students with autism spectrum disorder: Associations with stress, teacher engagement, and student IEP outcomes following COMPASS consultation. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357619836767.
Love, A. M. A., Toland, M. D., Usher, E. L., Campbell, J. M., & Spriggs, A. D. (2019b). Can I teach students with Autism Spectrum Disorder?: Investigating teacher self- efficacy with an emerging population of students. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.02.005.
Magaña, S., Lopez, K., Aguinaga, A., & Morton, H. (2013). Access to diagnosis and treatment services among Latino children with autism spectrum disorders. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 51, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-51.3.141.
McKeever, B. W. (2013). News framing of autism: Understanding media advocacy and the Combating Autism Act. Science Communication, 35, 213–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547012450951.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2019). Mplus: Statistical analysis with latent variables: User’s guide. Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
Nagib, W., & Williams, A. (2017). Toward an autism-friendly home environment. Housing Studies, 32, 140–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2016.1181719.
Organization for Autism Research. (2014). Life journey through autism: A guide to safety. Arlington, VA: Organization for Autism Research.
Pellicano, E., Dinsmore, A., & Charman, T. (2014). What should autism research focus upon? Community views and priorities from the United Kingdom. Autism, 18, 756–770. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361314529627.
Peterson, C. H., Peterson, N. A., & Powell, K. G. (2017). Cognitive interviewing for item development: Validity evidence based on content and response processes. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 50(4), 217–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1339564.
Preece, D. (2003). Providing an ‘autism-friendly’ service for children with an autistic spectrum disorder in a short-term (respite) care setting. Journal of Integrated Care, 11(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1108/14769018200300009.
Railey, K. S., Love, A. M., & Campbell, J. M. (2020a). A scoping review of autism spectrum disorder and the criminal justice system. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-020-00203-0.
Railey, K. S., Bowers-Campbell, J., Love, A. M., & Campbell, J. M. (2020b). An exploration of law enforcement officers’ training needs and interactions with individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04227-2.
Rava, R., Shattuck, P., Rast, J., & Roux, A. (2017). The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2958-3.
Rice, C. E., Zablotsky, B., Avila, R. M., Colpe, L. J., Schieve, L. A., Pringle, B., et al. (2016). Reported wandering behavior among children with autism spectrum disorder and/or intellectual disability. The Journal of Pediatrics, 174, 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.03.047.
Rimal, R. N. (2000). Closing the knowledge-behavior gap in health promotion: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Health Communication, 12, 219–237. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327027HC1203_01.
Rubio, D. M., Berg-Weger, M., Tebb, S. S., Lee, E. S., & Rauch, S. (2003). Objectifying content validity: Conducting a content validity study in social work research. Social Work Research, 27(2), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/27.2.94.
Ruble, L. A., Toland, M. D., Birdwhistell, J. L., McGrew, J. H., & Usher, E. L. (2013). Preliminary study of the autism self-efficacy scale for teachers. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7, 1151–1159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.201306.006.
Sheehan, K. B. (2001). E-mail survey response rates: A review. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.10836101.2001.tb00117.x.
Sheeran, P., Maki, A., Montanaro, E., Avishai-Yitshak, A., Bryan, A., Klein, W. M., et al. (2016). The impact of changing attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy on health-related intentions and behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 35, 1178.
Silberman, S. (2017). The police need to understand autism. Retrieved September 19, 2019, from The New York Times website https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/19/opinion/police-autism-understanding.html.
Skinner, B. F. (1984). The evolution of behavior. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 41, 217.
Teagardin, J., Dixon, D. R., Smith, M. N., & Granpeesheh, D. (2012). Randomized trial of law enforcement training on autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 1113–1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.02.002.
Williams, B., Brown, T., & Onsman, A. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis: A five-step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.33151/ajp.8.3.93.
Willis, G. B., & Artino, A. R., Jr. (2013). What do our respondents think we're asking? Using cognitive interviewing to improve medical education surveys. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 5(3), 353–356. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-13-00154.1.
Zee, M., & Koomen, H. M. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy and its effects on classroom processes, student academic adjustment, and teacher well-being: A synthesis of 40 years of research. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 981–1015. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543.
Zee, M., Koomen, H. M. Y., Jellesma, F. C., Geerlings, J., & de Jong, P. F. (2016). Inter- and intra- individual differences in teachers' self-efficacy: A multilevel factor exploration. Journal of School Psychology, 55, 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.12.003.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AL was the primary investigator of the project and devised the project, planned the logistics, and conducted the analyses. EU supervised the project from conceptualization to writing the manuscript. MT provided expertise in the area of psychometrics and gave a critical review of the analyses and full manuscript. JC, AS, and KS provided guidance in diverse ways including contributions to the original conceptualization, reflections on the results, writing, and critical feedback throughout.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
The questionnaire and methodology for this study was approved by the Human Research Ethics committee of the University of Kentucky (Ethics Approval Number: 43388.).
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Love, A.M.A., Usher, E.L., Toland, M.D. et al. Measuring Police Officer Self-efficacy for Working with Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 51, 1331–1345 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04613-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04613-1