Abstract
This study examined mathematics achievement in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or typical development (TD) over a 30-month period and the associations between cognitive and reading abilities with mathematics achievement in children with ASD. Seventy-seven children with ASD without intellectual disability (ASD-WoID), 39 children with ADHD, and 43 children with TD participated in this study. The results revealed that the ASD-WoID and ADHD samples displayed significant and comparable delays in problem solving and calculation abilities. Lower VIQ was related to lower math achievement across all subgroups. The ASD-WoID sample differed from comparison samples in terms of their pattern of mathematical achievement and the role of cognitive abilities in the development of mathematics competence.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aagten-Murphy, D., Attucci, C., Daniel, N., Klaric, E., Burr, D., & Pellicano, E. (2015). Numerical estimation in children with autism. Autism Research, 8(6), 668–681. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1482.
Assouline, S. G., Nicpon, M. F., & Dockery, L. (2012). Predicting the academic achievement of gifted students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1781–1789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1403-x.
Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., et al. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1.
Barendse, E. M., Hendriks, M. P., Jansen, J. F., Backes, W. H., Hofman, P. A., Thoonen, G., et al. (2013). Working memory deficits in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and neuroimaging correlates. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 5(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1866-1955-5-14.
Barnett, J. E. H., & Cleary, S. (2015). Review of evidence-based mathematics interventions for students with autism spectrum disorders. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 50(2), 172.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01904-6.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Burtenshaw, A., Hobson, E. (2007). Mathematical talent is linked to autism. Human Nature, 18, 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-007-9014-0.
Boonen, A. J., van der Schoot, M., van Wesel, F., de Vries, M. H., & Jolles, J. (2013). What underlies successful word problem solving? A path analysis in sixth grade students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(3), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.05.001.
Breaux, K. (2009). WIAT-III technical manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
Brosnan, M., Johnson, H., Grawemeyer, B., Chapman, E., Antoniadou, K., & Hollinworth, M. (2016). Deficits in metacognitive monitoring in mathematics assessments in learners with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 20(4), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315589477.
Conners, K. C. (2008). Conners (3rd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2005). SRS: Social Responsiveness Scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Chen, L., Abrams, D. A., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Iuculano, T., Wakeman, H. N., Prathap, S., et al. (2018). Quantitative analysis of heterogeneity in academic achievement of children with autism. Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618809353.
Chiang, H. M., & Lin, Y. H. (2007). Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism: A review of literature. Autism, 11(6), 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361307083259.
Ehlers, S., Gillberg, C., & Wing, L. (1999). A screening questionnaire for Asperger syndrome and other high-functioning autism spectrum disorders in school age children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023040610384.
Estes, A., Rivera, V., Bryan, M., Cali, P., & Dawson, G. (2011). Discrepancies between academic achievement and intellectual ability in higher-functioning school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(8), 1044–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1127-3.
Floyd, R. G., Evans, J. J., & McGrew, K. S. (2003). Relations between measures of Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities and mathematics achievement across the school-age years. Psychology in the Schools, 40(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10083.
Fleury, V. P., Hedges, S., Hume, K., Browder, D. M., Thompson, J. L., Fallin, K., et al. (2014). Addressing the academic needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in secondary education. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513518823.
Fombonne, E. (2003). The prevalence of autism. JAMA, 289(1), 87–89.
Gagnon, L., Mottron, L., Bherer, L., & Joanette, Y. (2004). Quantification judgement in high functioning autism: Superior or different? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(6), 679–689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-004-5288-9.
Gevarter, C., Bryant, D. P., Bryant, B., Watkins, L., Zamora, C., & Sammarco, N. (2016). Mathematics interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 3(3), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-016-0078-9.
Gotham, K., Risi, S., Dawson, G., Tager-Flusberg, H., Joseph, R., Carter, A., et al. (2008). A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bffb7.
Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0280-1.
Gremillion, M. L., & Martel, M. M. (2012). Semantic language as a mechanism explaining the association between ADHD symptoms and reading and mathematics underachievement. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(8), 1339–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9650-7.
Greven, C. U., Kovas, Y., Willcutt, E. G., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (2014). Evidence for shared genetic risk between ADHD symptoms and reduced mathematics ability: A twin study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12090.
Griswold, D. E., Barnhill, G. P., Myles, B. S., Hagiwara, T., & Simpson, R. L. (2002). Asperger syndrome and academic achievement. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170020401.
Harris, S., & Handleman, J. (2000). Age and IQ at intake as predictors of placement for young children with autism: A four- to six-year follow-up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 137–142.
Hart, S. A., Petrill, S. A., Willcutt, E., Thompson, L. A., Schatschneider, C., Deater-Deckard, K., et al. (2010). Exploring how symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are related to reading and mathematics performance: General genes, general environments. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1708–1715. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610386617.
Hiniker, A., Rosenberg-Lee, M., & Menon, V. (2016). Distinctive role of symbolic number sense in mediating the mathematical abilities of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(4), 1268–1281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2666-4.
Iuculano, T., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Supekar, K., Lynch, C. J., Khouzam, A., Phillips, J., et al. (2014). Brain organization underlying superior mathematical abilities in children with autism. Biological Psychiatry, 75(3), 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.018.
John, T. S., Dawson, G., & Estes, A. (2018). Brief report: Executive function as a predictor of academic achievement in school-aged children with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(1), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3296-9.
Jones, C. R., Happé, F., Golden, H., Marsden, A. J., Tregay, J., Simonoff, E., et al. (2009). Reading and arithmetic in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: Peaks and dips in attainment. Neuropsychology, 23(6), 718. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016360.
Kao, G. S. & Thomas, H. M. (2010). Test review: C. Keith Conners “Conners 3rd Edition” Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Multi-health systems, 2008. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28(6), 598-602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909360011.
Kercood, S., Grskovic, J. A., Banda, D., & Begeske, J. (2014). Working memory and autism: A review of literature. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(10), 1316–1332.
Kim, H., & Cameron, C. E. (2016). Implications of visuospatial skills and executive functions for learning mathematics: Evidence from children with autism and Williams syndrome. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.011.
King, S. A., Lemons, C. J., & Davidson, K. A. (2016). Math interventions for students with autism spectrum disorder: A best-evidence synthesis. Exceptional Children, 82(4), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915625066.
Kyttälä, M., & Björn, P. M. (2014). The role of literacy skills in adolescents' mathematics word problem performance: Controlling for visuo-spatial ability and mathematics anxiety. Learning and Individual Differences, 29, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.010.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule (2nd ed.). Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Lowrie, T., Logan, T., & Ramful, A. (2017). Visuospatial training improves elementary students’ mathematics performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 170–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12142.
May, T., Rinehart, N., Wilding, J., & Cornish, K. (2013). The role of attention in the academic attainment of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(9), 2147–2158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1766-2.
Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2008). WISC-IV and WIAT-II profiles in children with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(3), 428–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0410-4.
McDonlad, C., Donnely, J., Feldman-Alguire, A., & LopataThomeer, M. M. (2019). Special education service use by children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49, 2437–2446.
McIntyre, N. S., Oswald, T. M., Solari, E. J., Zajic, M. C., Lerro, L. E., Hughes, C., et al. (2018). Social cognition and reading comprehension in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders or typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 54, 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2018.06.004.
McIntyre, N. S., Solari, E. J., Gonzales, J. E., Solomon, M., Lerro, L. E., Novotny, S., et al. (2017). The scope and nature of reading comprehension impairments in school-aged children with higher-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(9), 2838–2860. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3209-y.
Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., Taylor, H. G., & Siegel, D. J. (1994). Academic achievement in high functioning autistic individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(2), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639408402637.
Mundy, P., Mastergeorge, A., & McIntyre, N. (2012). The effects of autism on social learning and social attention, Chapter 1. In P. Mundy & A. Mastergeorge (Eds.), Autism for Educators Translating Research to Schools and Classrooms (pp. 3–34). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Oswald, T. M., Beck, J. S., Iosif, A. M., McCauley, J. B., Gilhooly, L. J., Matter, J. C., et al. (2016). Clinical and cognitive characteristics associated with mathematics problem solving in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 9(4), 480–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1524.
Parmar, R. S., Cawley, J. F., & Frazita, R. R. (1996). Word problem-solving by students with and without mild disabilities. Exceptional Children, 62(5), 415–429. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299606200503.
Perna, R., Loughan, A. R., Le, J., Hertza, J., & Cohen, M. J. (2015). Spectrum of mathematical weaknesses: Related neuropsychological correlates. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 4(3), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2013.827573.
Randi, J., Newman, T., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2010). Teaching children with autism to read for meaning: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(7), 890–902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0938-6.
Rogers, M., Hwang, H., Toplak, M., Weiss, M., & Tannock, R. (2011). Inattention, working memory, and academic achievement in adolescents referred for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 17(5), 444–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.544648.
Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Manual for the social communication questionnaire. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the block design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(8), 1351–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02095.x.
Sheslow, D., & Adams, W. (2003). Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-Second Edition (WRAML2). Delaware: Wide range Inc.
Solari, E. J., Grimm, R., McIntyre, N. S., Swain-Lerro, L., Zajic, M., & Mundy, P. C. (2017). The relation between text reading fluency and reading comprehension for students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 41, 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2017.07.002.
Taub, G. E., Keith, T. Z., Floyd, R. G., & McGrew, K. S. (2008). Effects of general and broad cognition abilities on mathematics achievement. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(2), 187–198.
Toll, S. W., Van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., & Van Luit, J. E. (2011). Executive functions as predictors of math learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(6), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219410387302.
Towel, P., Vacanti-Shova, K., Higgins-D’Alessandro, A., Ausikaitis, A., & Reynolds, C. (2018). A longitudinal study of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder before age three: School services at three points in time for three levels of outcome disability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3606-x.
Tosto, M. G., Momi, S. K., Asherson, P., & Malki, K. (2015). A systematic review of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and mathematical ability: Current findings and future implications. BMC Medicine, 13(1), 204. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0414-4.
Turi, M., Burr, D. C., Igliozzi, R., Aagten-Murphy, D., Muratori, F., & Pellicano, E. (2015). Children with autism spectrum disorder show reduced adaptation to number. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(25), 7868–7872. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1504099112.
Vilenius-Tuohimaa, P. M., Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2008). The association between mathematical word problems and reading comprehension. Educational Psychology, 28(4), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410701708228.
Vista, A. (2013). The role of reading comprehension in math achievement growth: Investigating the magnitude and mechanism of the mediating effect on math achievement in Australian classrooms. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.06.009.
Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, (WIAT-III) (3rd ed.). London: The Psychological Corporation.
Wei, X., Christiano, E. R. A., Yu, J. W., Blackorby, J., Shattuck, P., & Newman, L. A. (2014). Postsecondary pathways and persistence for STEM versus non-STEM majors: Among college students with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1159–1167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1978-5.
Wei, X., Jennifer, W. Y., Shattuck, P., McCracken, M., & Blackorby, J. (2013). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) participation among college students with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1700-z.
Whitby, P. J. S., & Mancil, G. R. (2009). Academic achievement profiles of children with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome: A review of the literature. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44(4), 551–560.
Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (2012). Gray Oral Reading Tests—Fifth Edition: Examiner’s manual (GORT-5). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Funding
The research reported in this paper was supported by IES Grant # IES R324A120168, and the UC Davis Department of Psychiatry Lisa Capps Endowment for Research on Education and Neurodevelopmental Disorders.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
JCB analyzed and interpreted all longitudinal data and wrote all sections of the paper. LSL corrdinated data collection, contributed to the research methods, concept, and analyses. MZ and NM collected data, contributed to the research methods and concepts. PM was the PI of grant support for the project, collaborated on manuscript revisions, interpretation of data analyses, and contributed to the research methods and concepts.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee (UC Davis Office of Research Institutional Review Board (IRB) Protocol 236498-14) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent (parents) and informed assent (children) was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bullen, J.C., Swain Lerro, L., Zajic, M. et al. A Developmental Study of Mathematics in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, or Typical Development. J Autism Dev Disord 50, 4463–4476 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04500-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04500-9