Abstract
The study examined the association between autism traits and parenting when raising a typically developing (TD) child, and differences in parenting needs between parents with high and low traits. Fifty-eight parents with a blood relative with Autism (who happened to be an offspring with ASD in all cases) and a TD child completed the Autism Quotient, demographic and psychological information, as well as reporting on Parenting Sense of Competence, the Parent–Child Relationship, and Parenting Needs. Autism traits did not uniquely contribute to parenting self-esteem, but were associated with parenting difficulties for their TD child, and some aspects of this parent–child relationship. Parents with high autism traits reported more parenting difficulties than parents with low traits. The study identified specific aspects of parenting needing support to assist parents with high autism traits prosper in their parenting role.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adamczyk-Robinette, S. L., Fletcher, A. C., & Wright, K. (2002). Understanding the authoritative parenting–early adolescent tobacco use link: The mediating role of peer tobacco use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(4), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015401718682.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edn.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Allison, C. (2008). The autism spectrum quotient: Children’s version (AQ-Child). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(7), 1230–1240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0504-z.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, malesand females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005653411471.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887–907.
Belsky, J., & de Haan, M. (2011). Annual research review: Parenting and children’s brain development: The end of the beginning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 409–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02281.
Berg-Nielsen, T. S., Vikan, A., & Dahl, A. A. (2002). Parenting related to child and parental psychopathology: A descriptive review of the literature. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(4), 529–552. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104502007004006.
Broadbent, J., Galic, I., & Stokes, M. A. (2013). Valdation of the autism spectrum quotient adult version in an Australian Sample. Autism Research and Treatment. 2013, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/984205.
Brugha, T. S., McManus, S., Bankart, J., Scott, F., Purdon, S., Smith, J., … Meltzer, H. (2011). Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(5), 459–465. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.38.
Challacombe, F., & Salkovskis, P. (2009). A preliminary investigation of the impact of maternal obsessive-compulsive disorder and panic disorder on parenting and children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(7), 848–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.04.002.
Chandler, F., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). An investigation of the security of caregiver attachment during middle childhood in children with high-functioning autistic disorder. Autism, 18(5), 485–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313486205.
Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (2003). Maternal self-efficacy beliefs, competence in parenting, and toddlers’ behavior and developmental status. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(2), 126–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10048.
Conners, C. K., Erhardt, D., & Sparrow, E. (1999). Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales (CAARS). MHS.
Cox, A., Puckering, C., Pound, A., & Mills, M. (1987). The impact of maternal depression in young children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(6), 917–928. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb00679.x.
DeVore, E. R., & Ginsburg, K. R. (2005). The protective effects of good parenting on adolescents. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 17(4), 460–465.
DiClemente, R. J., Crosby, R. A., & Kegler, M. (2009). Emerging theories in health promotion practice and pesearch. San Francisco: Wiley.
Dissanayake, C., & Crossley, S. A. (1996). Proximity and sociable behaviours in autism: Evidence for attachment? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 149–156.
Dissanayake, C., & Sigman, M. (2000). Attachment and emotional responsiveness in children with autism. International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, 23, 239–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7750(00)80013-0.
Donovan, W. L., Leavitt, L. A., & Walsh, R. O. (1990). Maternal self-efficacy: Illusory control and its effect on susceptibility to learned helplessness. Child Development, 61(5), 1638–1647. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02890.x.
Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., & Deal, A. G. (1988). Enabling and empowering families: Principles and guidelines for practice. Cambridge: Brookline Books.
Gerard, A. B. (1994). Parent-Child Relationship Inventory. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Gordon, D., Burge, D., Hammen, C., Adrian, C., Jaenicke, C., & Hiroto, D. (1989). Observations of interactions of depressed women with their children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146(1), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.146.1.50.
Henry, J., & Crawford, J. (2005). The short-form of the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657.
Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Cath, D. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1555–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0538-x.
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Yale Journal of Sociology, 8, 21–51.
Howlin, P., & Magiati, I. (2017). Autism spectrum disorder: Outcomes in adulthood. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 30(2), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000308.
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2001). Parent–child interactions and anxiety disorders: An observational study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(12), 1411–1427. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00107-8.
Ingersoll, B., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2011). The relationship between the broader autism phenotype, child severity, and stress and depression in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 337–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.04.017.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18(2), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp1802_8.
Juang, L. P., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2002). The relationship between adolescent academic capability beliefs, parenting and school grades. Journal of Adolescense, 25(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2001.0445.
Kendziora, K. T., & O’Leary, S. G. (1993). Dysfunctional parenting as a focus for prevention and treatment of child behavior problems. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 15, 175–206.
Laranjo, J., Bernier, A., & Meins, E. (2008). Associations between maternal mind-mindedness and infant attachment security: Investigating the mediating role of maternal sensitivity. Infant Behavior and Development, 31(4), 688–695.
Lau, W. Y. P., Peterson, C. C., Attwood, T., Garnett, M. S., & Kelly, A. B. (2016). Parents on the autism continuum: Links with parenting efficacy. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 26, 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.02.007.
Liem, J. H., Cavell, E. C., & Lustig, K. (2010). The influence of authoritative parenting during adolescence on depressive symptoms in young adulthood: Examining the mediating roles of self-development and peer support. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 171(1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320903300379.
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7.
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.
Mash, E. J., & Johnston, C. (1983). Parental perceptions of child behavior problems, parenting self-esteem, and mothers’ reported stress in younger and older hyperactive and normal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(1), 86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.1.86.
McStay, R., Trembath, D., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). Maternal stress and family quality of life in response to raising a child with autism: From preschool to adolescence. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 3119–3130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.043.
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5.
Murray, L., Kempton, C., Woolgar, M., & Hooper, R. (1993). Depressed mothers’ speech to their infants and its relation to infant gender and cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(7), 1083–1101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01775.x.
Neppl, T. K., Conger, R. D., Scaramella, L. V., & Ontai, L. L. (2009). Intergenerational continuity in parenting behavior: Mediating pathways and child effects. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1241–1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014850.
Parker, G. (1989). The parental bonding instrument: Psychometric properties reviewed. Psychiatric Developments, 7, 317–335.
Parker, G., Roussos, J., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Mitchell, P., Wilhelm, K., & Austin, M.-P. (1997). The development of a refined measure of dysfunctional parenting and assessment of its relevance in patients with affective disorders. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1193–1203.
Piko, B. F., & Balázs, M. (2012). Authoritative parenting style and adolescent smoking and drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 37(3), 353–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.11.022.
Qualtrics. (2015). Qualtrics [computer program]. Provo: Qualtrics.
Rogers, H., & Matthews, J. (2004). The Parenting Sense of Competece Scale: Investigation of the factor structure, reliability, and validity for an Australian sample. Australian Psychologist, 39(1), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060410001660380.
Rutter, M. (1990). Commentary: Some focus and process considerations regarding effects of parental depression on children. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 60. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092669.
Sandin, S., Lichtenstein, P., Kuja-Halkola, R., Larsson, H., Hultman, C. M., & Reichenberg, A. (2014). The familial risk of autism. JAMA, 311(17), 1770–1777. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.4144.
Seligman, M., & Darling, B. R. (1989). Ordinary families, special children: A systems approach to childhood disability. New York: Guilford Press.
Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Abbeduto, L., & Greenberg, J. S. (2004). Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10, 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20038.
Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3950-1.
Spoth, R. L., & Conroy, S. M. (1993). Survey of prevention-relevant beliefs and efforts to enhance parenting skills among rural parents. The Journal of Rural Health, 9(3), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-0361.1993.tb00516.x.
Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Parent–adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00001.
Sucksmith, E., Roth, I., & Hoekstra, R. (2011). Autistic traits below the clinical threshold: Re-examining the broader autism phenotype in the 21st century. Neuropsychology Review, 21(4), 360–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-011-9183-9.
Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1992). Intergenerational transmission of parenting: A review of studies in nonclinical populations. Developmental Review, 12(1), 76–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273- 2297(92)90004-L.
van Steijn, D. J., Oerlemans, A. M., de Ruiter, S. W., van Aken, M. A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. (2013). Are parental autism spectrum disorder and/or attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder symptoms related to parenting styles in families with ASD (+ ADHD) affected children? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22(11), 671–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0408-8.
Whaley, S. E., Pinto, A., & Sigman, M. (1999). Characterizing interactions between anxious mothers and their children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(6), 826. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.826.
Wilson, S., & Durbin, C. E. (2010). Effects of paternal depression on fathers’ parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.007.
Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the parents who participated in this study, and our funder, the William and Vera Houston Memorial Trust. CD and AR conceived of the study and study design.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
CD oversaw its execution carried out by NK and LP. NK developed the Parenting Difficulties Questionnaire (PDQ) together with CD and LP. All authors were involved in data analyses and interpretation of results. CD and AR drafted the manuscript together with NK, and all authors provided critical comment on the draft and editing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix: Parenting Needs Questionnaire
Appendix: Parenting Needs Questionnaire
Thinking of your interactions with your oldest child without a disability, please indicate how easy or difficult you find each of the following:
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dissanayake, C., Richdale, A., Kolivas, N. et al. An Exploratory Study of Autism Traits and Parenting. J Autism Dev Disord 50, 2593–2606 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03984-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03984-4