Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Perceptions of the Nature of the Relationship Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Share with Their Canine Companion

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the role of companion canines in the lives of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Interviews were conducted with 11 mothers of children with ASD (aged 5–12) who owned a canine companion in a multiple case study methodology. Transcript analysis revealed the emergence of five major themes, namely; love and companionship, perception of ownership, comfort and calming influence, canine’s ability to assist the child with understanding their world, and challenging experiences. The social and emotional benefits of companion canine ownership were observed in the majority of cases, particularly when the canine was the preferred companion animal and possessed an appropriate temperament suitable to cohabit with children who possess unique social and sensory needs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S., & Meints, K. (2016). Brief report: The effects of equine-assisted activities on the social functioning in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(10), 3344–3352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergstrom, R., Tarbox, J., & Gutshall, K. A. (2011). Behavioural intervention for domestic pet mistreatment in a young child with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 218–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, A., Borgi, M., Francia, N., Alleva, E., & Cirulli, F. (2013). Use of assistance and therapy dogs for children with autism spectrum disorders: A critical review of the current evidence. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19(2), 73–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blazina, C., Boyraz, G., & Shen-Miller, D. S. (2011). The psychology of the human-animal bond: A resource for clinicians and researchers. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, A. F., & Gutstein, S. E. (2007). Quality of life for people with autism: Raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 12(2), 80–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burrows, K. E., Adams, C. L., & Millman, S. T. (2008). Factors affecting behaviour and welfare of service dogs for children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 11, 42–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burrows, K. E., Adams, C. L., & Spiers, J. (2008). Sentinels of safety: Service dogs ensure safety and enhance freedom and well-being for families with autistic children. Qualitative Health Research, 18, 1642–1649.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, G. K. (2012). Pet dog ownership in families of children with autism: Children’s social skills and attachment to their dogs (Order No. 3537870). Available from ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1328154013). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.ecu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1328154013?accountid=10675.

  • Carlisle, G. K. (2014). Pet dog ownership decisions for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 29, 114–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, G. K. (2015). The social skills and attachment to dogs of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1137–1145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chmiliar, L. (2012) Multiple case designs. In A. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe (Eds.) Encyclopedia of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412957397.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Committee on Children with Disabilities. (2001). Technical report: The pediatrician’s role in the diagnosis and management of autistic spectrum disorder in children. Pediatrics, 107(5), e85, 1–18.

  • Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, B., & Morton, L. L. (2006). An investigation of human animal interactions and empathy as related to pet preference, ownership, attachment, and attitudes in children. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary. Journal of the Interactions of People & Animals, 19(2), 113–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elsabbagh, M., Divan, G., Koh, Y., Kim, Y. S., Kauchali, S., Marcín, C.,.. . Fombonne, E. (2012). Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Research, 5(3), 160–179.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, N., & Gray, C. (2012). The practice and ethics of animal-assisted therapy with children and young people: Is it enough that we don’t eat our co-workers? British Journal of Social Work, 42(4), 600–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fecteau, S. M., Boivin, L., Trudel, M., Corbett, B. A., Harrell, F. E., Viau, R., Champagne, N., & Picard, F. (2017). Parenting stress and salivary cortisol in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder: Longitudinal variations in the context of a service dog’s presence in the family. Biological Psychology, 123, 187–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, S. C. (2015). Increasing the social communication of a boy with autism using animal-assisted play therapy: A case report. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 29(3), 27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, S. C., & Leung, A. S. (2014). Pilot study investigating the role of therapy dogs in facilitating social interaction among children with autism. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 44, 253–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandgeorge, M., Bourreau, Y., Alavi, Z., Lemonnier, E., Tordjman, S., Deleau, M., & Hausberger, M. (2015). Interest towards human, animal and object in children with autism spectrum disorders: An ethological approach at home. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(1), 83–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandgeorge, M., Tordjman, S., Lazartigues, A., Lemonnier, E., Deleau, M., & Hausberger, M. (2012). Does pet arrival trigger prosocial behaviors in individuals with autism? PLoS ONE, 7(8), e41739.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, S. S., Wright, H. F., Hames, A, PAWS Team, & Mills, D. S. (2016). The long-term benefits of dog ownership in families with children with autism. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 13, 46–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hines, M., Balandin, S., & Togher, L. (2012). Buried by autism: Older parents’ perceptions of autism. Autism, 16(1), 15–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2017). Strategies to improve the evidence of animal-assisted interventions. Applied Developmental Science, 21, 150–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruger, K. A., & Serpell, J. A. (2010). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations. In A. H. Fine (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice (pp. 33–48). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, M., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet, 383(9920), 896–910.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakestani, N., & Donaldson, M. L. (2015). Dog bite prevention: Effect of a short educational intervention for preschool children. PLoS ONE, 10(8), e0134319.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lakestani, N. N., Donaldson, M. L., & Waran, N. (2014). Interpretation of dog behavior by children and young adults. Anthrozoos, 27(1), 65–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanning, B. A., Baier, M. E. M., Ivey-Hatz, J., Krenek, N., & Tubbs, J. D. (2014). Effects of equine assisted activities on autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 1897–1907.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lapadat, J. C. (2012). Thematic analysis. In A. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe (Eds.) Encyclopedia of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412957397.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liamputtong, P. (2009). Qualitative research methods (3rd edn.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, F., & Farnum, J. (2002). Animal-assisted therapy for children with pervasive developmental disorders. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 24(6), 657–670.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., Hess, J., & Mahan, S. (2013). Moderating effects of challenging behaviours and communication deficits on social skills in children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7, 23–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., Matson, M. L., & Rivet, T. T. (2007). Social-skills treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders. Behavior Modification, 31, 682–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maujean, A., Pepping, C. A., & Kendall, E. (2015). A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of animal-assisted therapy on psychosocial outcomes. Anthrozoös, 28(1), 23–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNicholas, J., & Collis, G. M. (2001). Children’s representations of pets in their social networks. Child: Care, Health and Development, 27(3), 279–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melson, G. F. (2003). Child development and the human-companion animal bond. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(1), 31–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research 2007. (2015). The National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council and the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Retrieved from https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/e72.

  • Nimer, J., & Lundahl, B. (2007). Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis. Anthrozoos: A multidisciplinary journal of the interactions of people & animals, 20, 225–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Haire, M. E. (2013). Animal-assisted intervention for autism spectrum disorder: A systematic literature review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1606–1622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, S. Y., Smith, V., & Jelen, M. (2010). Behavioural intervention practices for stereotypic and repetitive behaviour in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52, 318–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prothmann, A., Ettrich, C., & Prothmann, S. (2009). Preference for, and responsiveness to, people, dogs and objects in children with autism. Anthrozoos: A multidisciplinary journal of the interactions of people & animals, 22(2), 161–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redefer, L. A., & Goodman, J. F. (1989). Brief report: Pet-facilitated therapy with autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder, 19, 461–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reichow, B., & Volkmar, F. R. (2010). Social skills interventions for individuals with autism: Evaluation for evidence-based practices within a best evidence synthesis framework. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(2), 149–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Royer, I. (2012). Number of Cases. In A. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe (Eds.) Encyclopedia of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412957397.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rutgers, A. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2004). Autism and attachment: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(6), 1123–1134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sams, M. J., Fortney, E. V., & Willenbring, S. (2006). Occupational therapy incorporating animals for children with autism: A pilot investigation. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy: Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association, 60(3), 268–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkin, B. S., & Knox, D. (2003). Pet loss: Issues and implications for the psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(4), 414–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siewertsen, C. M., French, E. D., & Teramoto, M. (2015). Autism spectrum disorder and pet therapy. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 29(2), 22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2008). Interpretive phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (2nd edn., pp. 53–80). London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, O. (2012). Doing, being and becoming: The sociality of children with autism in activities with therapy dogs and other people. Cambridge Anthropology, 30(1), 109–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, N., Fraser, H., Signal, T., & Prentice, K. (2016). Social work, animal-assisted therapies and ethical considerations: A programme example from central Queensland. Australia. British Journal of Social Work, 46(1), 135–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triebenbacher, S. L. (1998). Pets as transitional objects: Their role in children’s emotional development. Psychological Reports, 82(1), 191–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ulrey, L. H. (2015). Companion animals and autism: An exploration of their role in the family (Order No. 3703701). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1689890385). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.ecu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1689890385?accountid=10675.

  • Van Steensel, F. J. A., Bogels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 302–317.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Viau, R., Arsenault-Lapierre, G., Fecteau, S., Champagne, N., Walker, C.-D., & Lupien, S. (2010). Effect of service dogs on salivary cortisol secretion in autistic children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 1187–1193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, F. (2009). Human-animal bonds I: The relational significance of companion animals. Family Process, 48(4), 462–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, A., Arola, N., Bohnert, A., & Lieb, R. (2017). Social-emotional adjustment and pet ownership among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Communication Disorders, 65, 35–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, S. C., Whalon, K., Rusnak, K., Wendell, K., & Paschall, N. (2013). The association between therapeutic horseback riding and the social communication and sensory reactions of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(9), 2190–2198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wigham, S., Barton, S., Parr, J. R., & Rodgers, J. (2017). A systematic review of the rates of depression in children and adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 10, 267–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wild, D. L. (2012). The impact of canine assistance for children with autism and the family unit. Minneapolis: Walden University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K., Woolfenden, S., Roberts, J., Rodger, S., Bartak, L., & Prior, M. (2014). Autism in context 1: Classification, counting and causes. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 50, 335–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, H. F., Hall, S., Hames, A., Hardiman, J., Mills, R., Mills, D. S., & PAWS Team (2015). Acquiring a pet dog significantly reduces stress of primary carers for children with autism spectrum disorder: A prospective case control study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(8), 2531–2540.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, R. (2014). Case study research design and methods (5th edn.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zilcha-Mano, S., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2011). An attachment perspective on human–pet relationships: Conceptualization and assessment of pet attachment orientations. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(4), 345–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was undertaken as part of a Masters in Clinical Psychology by the first author.

Funding

No funding was received.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Arts and Humanities, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA, 6027, Australia

    Caitlin Harwood, Elizabeth Kaczmarek & Deirdre Drake

Authors
  1. Caitlin Harwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elizabeth Kaczmarek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Deirdre Drake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors conceived and planned this study. CH conducted all of of the interviews with participants and engaged with the data analysis, in consultation with EK and DD. All authors contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth Kaczmarek.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Harwood, C., Kaczmarek, E. & Drake, D. Parental Perceptions of the Nature of the Relationship Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Share with Their Canine Companion. J Autism Dev Disord 49, 248–259 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3759-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3759-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation