Abstract
Individuals with higher levels of the broad autism phenotype (BAP) have some symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Like individuals with ASD, people with higher-BAP may have fewer sexual experiences and may experience more same-sex attraction. This study measured BAP traits, sexual experiences, and sexual orientation in typically developing (TD) individuals to see if patterns of sexual behavior and sexual orientation in higher-BAP resemble those in ASD. Although BAP characteristics did not predict sexual experiences, one BAP measure significantly predicted sexual orientation, β = 0.22, t = 2.72, p = .007, controlling for demographic variables (R2 change = .04, F = 7.41, p = .007), showing individuals with higher-BAP also reported increased same-sex attraction. This finding supports the hypothesis that individuals with higher-BAP resemble ASD individuals in being more likely than TD individuals to experience same-sex attraction.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edn. DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Bailey, A., Palferman, S., Heavey, L., & Le Couteur, A. (1998). Autism: The phenotype in relatives. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(5), 369–392. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026048320785.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17.
Bejerot, S., & Eriksson, J. M. (2014). Sexuality and gender role in autism spectrum disorder: A case control study. PLoS ONE, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087961.
Best, C. S., Moffat, V. J., Power, M. J., Owens, D. G. C., & Johnstone, E. C. (2008). The boundaries of the cognitive phenotype of autism: Theory of mind, central coherence and ambiguous figure perception in young people with autistic traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 840–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0451-8.
Byers, E. S., Nichols, S., & Voyer, S. D. (2013). Challenging stereotypes: Sexual functioning of single adults with high functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(11), 2617–2627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1813-z.
Byers, E. S., Nichols, S., Voyer, S. D., & Reilly, G. (2012). Sexual well-being of a community sample of high-functioning adults on the autism spectrum who have been in a romantic relationship. Autism, 17(4), 418–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311431950.
Carrington, S., Templeton, E., & Papinczak, T. (2003). Adolescents with Asperger syndrome and perceptions of friendship. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(4), 211–218.
Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2007). Autistic traits in the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524–530. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.524.
Cox, A., Kohls, G., Naples, A. J., Mukerji, C. E., Coffman, M. C., Rutherford, H. J. V., … McPartland, J. C. (2015). Diminished social reward anticipation in the broad autism phenotype as revealed by event-related brain potentials. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(10), 1357–1364. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv024.
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1979). The DSFI: A multidimensional measure of sexual functioning. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 5(1), 244–281.
DeWinter, J., De Graaf, H., & Begeer, S. (2017). Sexual orientation, gender identity, and romantic relationships in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(9), 2927–2934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3199-9.
Floyd, F. J., & Stein, T. S. (2002). Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(2), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00030.
George, R., & Stokes, M. A. (2018). Sexual orientation in autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 11(1), 133–141.
Gilmour, L., Schalomon, P. M., & Smith, V. (2012). Sexuality in a community based sample of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 313–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.06.003.
Gonsiorek, J. C., Sell, R. L., & Weinrich, J. D. (1995). Definition and measurement of sexual orientation. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 25(Suppl 1), 40–51.
Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Cath, D. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1555–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0538-x.
Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Verweij, C. J. H., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(4), 372–377. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.4.372.
Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder-a follow-up comparison in early adult life. II: Social, behavioural, and psychiatric outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41(5), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00643.
Hurley, R. S. E., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0299-3.
Hurst, R. M., Mitchell, J. T., Kimbrel, N. A., Kwapil, T. K., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2007). Examination of the reliability and factor structure of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1938–1949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.012.
Ingersoll, B., Hopwood, C. J., Wainer, A., & Brent Donnellan, M. (2011). A comparison of three self-report measures of the broader autism phenotype in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(12), 1646–1657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1192-2.
Jobe, L. E., & White, S. W. (2007). Loneliness, social relationships, and a broader autism phenotype in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1479–1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.021.
Klein, F., Sepekoff, B., & Wolf, T. (1985). Sexual orientation: A multivariable dynamic process. Journal of Homosexuality, 11(1–2), 35–49.
Kunihira, Y., Senju, A., Dairoku, H., Wakabayashi, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2006). “Autistic” traits in non-autistic Japanese populations: Relationships with personality traits and cognitive ability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(4), 553–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0094-1.
Lamport, D., & Turner, L. A. (2014). Romantic attachment, empathy, and the broader autism phenotype among college students. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 175(3), 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2013.856838.
Mehzabin, P., & Stokes, M. A. (2011). Self-assessed sexuality in young adults with high-functioning autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.07.006.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.
Palmer, C. J., Paton, B., Enticott, P. G., & Hohwy, J. (2014). “Subtypes” in the presentation of autistic traits in the general adult population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(3), 1291–1301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2289-1.
Pecora, L. A., Mesibov, G. B., & Stokes, M. A. (2016). Sexuality in high-functioning autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(11), 3519–3556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2892-4.
Pisula, E., Kawa, R., Danielewicz, D., & Pisula, W. (2015). The relationship between temperament and autistic traits in a non-clinical students sample. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0124364. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124364.
Piven, J., & Palmer, P. (1997). Cognitive deficits in parents from multiple-incidence autism families. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(8), 1011–1021. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01618.x.
Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997a). Broader autism phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.2.185.
Piven, J., Palmer, P., Landa, R., Santangelo, S., Jacobi, D., & Childress, D. (1997b). Personality and language characteristics in parents from multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 74, 398–411.
Pollmann, M. M. H., Finkenauer, C., & Begeer, S. (2010). Mediators of the link between autistic traits and relationship satisfaction in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(4), 470–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0888-z.
Rainie, B. L., & Madden, M. (2005). Not looking for love: The state of romance in America. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2006/02/13/romance-in-america/.
Rupp, H. A., & Wallen, K. (2007). Sex differences in viewing sexual stimuli: An eye-tracking study in men and women. Hormones and Behavior, 51(4), 524–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.01.008.
Sasson, N. J., Lam, K. S. L., Childress, D., Parlier, M., Daniels, J., & Piven, J. (2013). The Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire: Prevalence and diagnostic classification. Autism Research, 6(2), 134–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1272.The.
Szatmari, P., Georgiades, S., Duku, E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Goldberg, J., & Bennett, T. (2008). Alexithymia in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(10), 1859–1865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0576-4.
Taylor, J. F., Rosen, R. C., & Leiblum, S. R. (1994). Self-report assessment of female sexual function: Psychometric evaluations of the brief index of sexual functioning for women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 23(6), 627–643.
Visser, K., Greaves-Lord, K., Tick, N. T., Verhulst, F. C., Maras, A., & van der Vegt, E. J. M. (2015). Study protocol: A randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a psychosexual training program for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0586-7.
Wainer, A. L., Ingersoll, B. R., & Hopwood, C. J. (2011). The structure and nature of the broader autism phenotype in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33(4), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9259-0.
Wang, W., & Parker, K. (2014). Record share of Americans have never married: As values, economics and gender patterns change. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project.
Ward, B. W., Dahlhamer, J. M., Galinsky, A. M., & Joestl, S. S. (2014). Sexual orientation and health among U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2013. National Health Statistics Reports, 77, 1–12.
Acknowledgments
This study was performed in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master’s Thesis for LRQ, who wishes to acknowledge the members of her committee. Data from this research was also presented as a poster at the International Meeting for Autism Research in San Francisco, CA on May 11th, 2017.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LRQ conceived of the study idea and design, collected and analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. KH participated in the design and coordination of the study. JFP participated in the study design and data analysis for the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Qualls, L.R., Hartmann, K. & Paulson, J.F. Broad Autism Phenotypic Traits and the Relationship to Sexual Orientation and Sexual Behavior. J Autism Dev Disord 48, 3974–3983 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3556-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3556-3