Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Associations Between Resilience and the Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Disabilities

  • S.I. : Parenting Children with ASD
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is variability in the extent to which mothers are affected by the behavior problems of their children with developmental disabilities (DD). We explore whether maternal resilience functions as a protective or compensatory factor. In Studies 1 and 2, using moderated multiple regression models, we found evidence that maternal resilience functioned as a compensatory factor—having a significant independent main effect relationship with well-being outcomes in mothers of children with DD and autism spectrum disorder. However, there was no longitudinal association between resilience and maternal well-being outcomes. There was little evidence of the role of resilience as a protective factor between child behavior problems and maternal well-being in both studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oak: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, G., Page, A. C., & Neilson, M. (1993). Sending your teenagers away: controlled stress decreases neurotic vulnerability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50(7), 585–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C. (2003). Pre- school children with and without developmental delay: Behaviour problems and parenting stress over time. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47(4-5), 217–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayat, M. (2007). Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 51, 702–714.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A., Daley, D., Hastings, R. P., & Stevenson, J. (2004a). Mothers’ expressed emotion towards children with and without intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 48(7), 628–638.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A., Hastings, R. P., Daley, D., & Stevenson, J. (2004b). Pro-social behaviour and behaviour problems independently predict maternal stress. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 29(4), 339–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedard, M., Felteau, M., Mazmanian, D., Fedyk, K., Klein, R., Richardson, J., Parkinson, W., & Minthorn-Biggs, M. B. (2003). Pilot evaluation of a mindfulness-based intervention to improve quality of life among individuals who sustained traumatic brain injuries. Disability and Rehabilitation, 25(13), 722–731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blacher, J., & McIntyre, L. L. (2006). Syndrome specificity and behavioural disorders in young adults with intellectual disability: Cultural differences in family impact. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(3), 184–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowerman, B. L., & O’Connell, R. T. (1990). Linear statistical models: An applied approach (2nd edn.). Belmont, CA: Duxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Cohen, P. (1986). Dynamics of childhood and adolescent personality traits and adolescent drug use. Developmental Psychology, 22(3), 403–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A. S., & Cohen, P. (1989). Changes in drug involvement: A longitudinal study of childhood and adolescent determinants. Psychological Reports, 65(3), 707–726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clifford, T., & Minnes, P. (2013). Who participates in support groups for parents of children with autism spectrum disorders? The role of beliefs and coping style. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(1), 179–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., Przybeck, T., Friesen, D., & Todd, R. D. (2000). Reciprocal social behavior in children with and without pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21(1), 2–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(3), 266–280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devins, G. M., Orme, C. M., Costello, C. G., Binik, Y. M., Frizzell, B., Stam, H. J., & Pullin, W. M. (1988). Measuring depressive symptoms in illness populations: Psychometric properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Psychology and Health, 2(2), 139–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenhower, A. S., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2005). Preschool children with intellectual disability: Syndrome specificity, behaviour problems, and maternal well-being. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(9), 657–671.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas, N. V., Keylon, L., Pruitt, M., Ghilain, C., & Alessandri, M. (2015). The power of positivity: Predictors of relationship satisfaction for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1997–2007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas, N. V., Lickenbrock, D. M., & Whitman, T. L. (2010). Optimism, social support, and well-being among mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1274–1284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas, N. V., Pruitt, M. M., & McKay, E. (2016). Hope, social relations, and depression symptoms in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 29–30, 8–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ello, L. M., & Donovan, S. J. (2005). Assessment of the relationship between parenting stress and a child’s ability to functionally communicate. Research on Social Work Practice, 15(6), 531–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G. A., Rafanelli, C., Cazzaro, M., Conti, S., & Grandi, S. (1998). Well-being therapy. A novel psychotherapeutic approach for residual symptoms of affective disorders. Psychological Medicine, 28(02), 475–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: A framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399–419.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Firth, I., & Dryer, R. (2013). The predictors of distress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 38(2), 163–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2013). Psychological resilience. European Psychologist, 18, 12–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12(2), 65–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstein, E. D., Crnic, K., Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2009). Resilience and the course of daily parenting stress in families of young children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53(12), 981–997.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 581–586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 125–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, S., Cross, E., Wraith, J. E., Jones, S., Mahon, L., Lomax, M., Bigger, B., & Hare, D. (2013). Parental social support, coping strategies, resilience factors, stress, anxiety and depression levels in parents of children with MPS III (Sanfilippo syndrome) or children with intellectual disabilities (ID). Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease, 36(2), 281–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, G. M., Hastings, R. P., Oliver, C., Howlin, P., Moss, J., Petty, J., & Tunnicliffe, P. (2011). Psychological wellbeing in parents of children with Angelman, Cornelia de Lange and Cri du Chat syndromes. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 55(4), 397–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P., Tiefenthaler-Gilmer, U., Raysz, A., & Kesper, U. (2007). Mindfulness training as an intervention for fibromyalgia: evidence of postintervention and 3-year follow-up benefits in well-being. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 76(4), 226–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez, L. M. (1994). Beyond coping: An empowerment perspective on stressful life events. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 21, 201–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P. (2016). Do children with intellectual and developmental disabilities have a negative impact on other family members? The case for rejecting a negative narrative. International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 50, 165–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., & Brown, T. (2002). Behavior problems of children with autism, parental self-efficacy, and mental health. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 222–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Daley, D., Burns, C., & Beck, A. (2006). Maternal distress and expressed emotion: Cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships with behavior problems of children with intellectual disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111, 48–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., & Johnson, E. (2001). Stress in UK families conducting intensive home- based behavioral intervention for their young child with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(3), 327–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Brown, T., Ward, N. J., Espinosa, D., F., & Remington, B. (2005). Coping strategies in mothers and fathers of preschool and school-age children with autism. Autism, 9(4), 377–391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., & Taunt, H. M. (2002). Positive perceptions in families of children with developmental disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 116–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modelling [White paper]. Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf.

  • Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(3), 629–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herring, S., Gray, K., Taffe, J., Tonge, B., Sweeney, D., & Einfeld, S. (2006). Behaviour and emotional problems in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders and developmental delay: Associations with parental mental health and family functioning. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 874–882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill-Chapman, C. R., Herzog, T. K., & Maduro, R. S. (2013). Aligning over the child: Parenting alliance mediates the association of autism spectrum disorder atypicality with parenting stress. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(5), 1498–1504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, L., Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., & Petalas, M. A. (2013). Gender differences when parenting children with autism spectrum disorders: A multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(9), 2090–2098.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behaviour problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(3), 172–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, T., & Hastings, R. P. (2009). Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53, 957–968.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, D. M., & Parker, K. J. (2007). Stress inoculation-induced indications of resilience in monkeys. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(4), 423–433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, E. E., Hastings, R. P., & Fitzsimons, E. (2010). Psychological acceptance mediates the impact of the behaviour problems of children with intellectual disability on fathers’ psychological adjustment. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(1), 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 13–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Powell, J. L., & Luthar, S. S. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 1–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McConnell, D., & Savage, A. (2015). Stress and resilience among families caring for children with intellectual disability: Expanding the research Agenda. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 2(2), 100–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, R. (1990). Classical and modern regression with applications (2nd edn.). Boston, MA: Duxbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldehinkel, A. J., & Ormel, J. (2014). A longitudinal perspective on childhood adversities and onset risk of various psychiatric disorders. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 641–650.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, D. (2011). FACES IV and the circumplex model: Validation study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 37(1), 64–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, D. H., & Wilson, M. (1982). Family satisfaction. In D. H. Olson, H. I. McCubbin, H. Barnes, A. Larsen, M. Muxen & M. Wilson (Eds.), Family inventories: Inventories used in a national survey of families across the family life cycle. Family social science. St. Paul (MN): University of Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pakenham, K. I., Samios, C., & Sofronoff, K. (2005). Adjustment in mothers of children with Asperger syndrome an application of the double ABCX model of family adjustment. Autism, 9(2), 191–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peer, J. W., & Hillman, S. B. (2014). Stress and resilience for parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A review of key factors and recommendations for practitioners. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 11(2), 92–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3), 472–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reaven, J., Washington, L., Moody, E. J., Stern, J. A., Hepburn, S. L., & Blakeley-Smith, A. (2015). Examining the relationship between parental anxiety and treatment response in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and anxiety. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(8), 2464–2473.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Robledillo, N., De Andrés-García, S., Pérez-Blasco, J., González-Bono, E., & Moya- Albiol, L. (2014). Highly resilient coping entails better perceived health, high social support and low morning cortisol levels in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(3), 686–695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(3), 316–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scorgie, K., & Sobsey, D. (2000). Transformational outcomes associated with parenting children who have disabilities. Mental Retardation, 38(3), 195–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1025–1041.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Orsmond, G. I., Bolt, D., Kring, S., … & Lord, C. (2007). Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescents and adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1735–1747.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta- analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 467–487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, V. G., & Wallston, K. A. (2004). The development and psychometric evaluation of the brief resilient coping scale. Assessment, 11(1), 94–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Seltzer, M. M., Tager-Flusberg, H., Greenberg, J. S., & Carter, A. S. (2008). A comparative analysis of well-being and coping among mothers of toddlers and mothers of adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 876–889.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory STAI (form Y)(“self-evaluation questionnaire”).

  • Tang, S. T., Chang, W. C., Chen, J. S., Wang, H. M., Shen, W. C., Li, C. Y., & Liao, Y. C. (2013). Course and predictors of depressive symptoms among family caregivers of terminally ill cancer patients until their death. Psycho-Oncology, 22(6), 1312–1318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., Emerson, E., Lancaster, G. A., & Berridge, D. M. (2011). A population-based investigation of behavioural and emotional problems and maternal mental health: Associations with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(1), 91–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, F. (1998). Strengthening family resilience. The Guilford Family Therapy Series.

  • Walsh, F. (2006). Strengthening family resilience. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, J. A., Cappadocia, M. C., MacMullin, J. A., Viecili, M. A., & Lunsky, Y. (2012). Psychological acceptance and empowerment as mediators of the impact of problem behaviour in children with autism spectrum disorders on parent mental health. Autism, 16, 261–274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Windle, G. (2011). What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 21(02), 152–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeedyk, S. M., & Blacher, J. (2015). Chapter one-maternal depression and child behavior problems: Longitudinal considerations. International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 49, 1–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Study 1 was supported in part by a PhD scholarship to Elizabeth Halstead funded by Bangor University. Study 2 was supported by the Research and Creative Activities Fund at Texas Christian University. Portions of these data served as part of the doctoral dissertation of the first author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bangor University, Bangor, UK

    Elizabeth Halstead & Gemma M. Griffith

  2. Texas Christian University, TCU Box 298920, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA

    Naomi Ekas

  3. University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

    Richard P. Hastings

Authors
  1. Elizabeth Halstead
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Naomi Ekas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard P. Hastings
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gemma M. Griffith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

EH conceived of the study, conducted analyses for Study 1 and 2, and drafted the manuscript. NE conceived of the study, conducted data collection for Study 2, conducted supplementary analyses for Study 2, provided feedback on manuscript drafts, and assisted with drafting the manuscript. RPH conceived of the study and helped to draft the manuscript. GMG provided feedback on manuscript drafts and assisted with data collection. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Naomi Ekas.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Halstead, E., Ekas, N., Hastings, R.P. et al. Associations Between Resilience and the Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Disabilities. J Autism Dev Disord 48, 1108–1121 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3447-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3447-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation