Skip to main content

A Relationship Between Early Language Skills and Adult Autistic-Like Traits: Evidence from a Longitudinal Population-Based Study

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders volume 47, pages 1478–1489 (2017)Cite this article

Abstract

The current study examined the relationship between early language ability and autistic-like traits in adulthood, utilising data from 644 participants from a longitudinal study of the general population. Language performance at 2 years was measured with the Language Development Survey (LDS), and at 20 years the participants completed the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Vocabulary size at 2 years was negatively associated with Total AQ score, as well as scores on the Communication, and Social Skills subscales. Adults who had been late talkers were also more likely to have ‘high’ scores on the Communication subscale. This is the first study to show an association between early language ability and autistic-like traits in adulthood.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (Vol. 5th). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ashwood, K. L., Gillan, N., Horder, J., Hayward, H., Woodhouse, E., McEwen, F. S., et al. (2016). Predicting the diagnosis of autism in adults using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire. Psychological Medicine, 46(12), 2595–2604. doi:10.1017/S0033291716001082.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J. (2005). Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 451–460. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians (vol 31, pg 5, 2001). Journal Of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(6), 603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: A study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1431–1436. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00325.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Self-reported autism symptoms in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(11), 2354–2363. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1483-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P. F., Golding, J., Emond, A., & Steer, C. D. (2012). Autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits in the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children: Precursors and early signs. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(3), 249–260.e225. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.12.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher, J. (2012). Research review: Structural language in autistic spectrum disorder—Characteristics and causes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 219–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buschmann, A., Jooss, B., Rupp, A., Dockter, S., Blaschtikowitz, H., Heggen, I., & Pietz, J. (2008). Children with developmental language delay at 24 months of age: Results of a diagnostic work-up. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 50(3), 223–229. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.02034.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clifford, A., Lang, L., & Chen, R. (2012). Effects of maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy on cognitive parameters of children and young adults: A literature review. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 34(6), 560–570. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.09.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dale, P. S., Price, T. S., Bishop, D. V. M., & Plomin, R. (2003). Outcomes of early language delay: I. Predicting persistent and transient language difficulties at 3 and 4 years. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(3), 544–560. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/044).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Giacomo, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 131–136. doi:10.1007/s007870050058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desmarais, C., Sylvestre, A., Meyer, F., Bairati, I., & Rouleau, N. (2008). Systematic review of the literature on characteristics of late-talking toddlers. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 43(4), 361–389. doi:10.1080/13682820701546854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworzynski, K., Ronald, A., Hayiou-Thomas, M., Rijsdijk, F., Happé, F., Bolton, P. F., & Plomin, R. (2007). Aetiological relationship between language performance and autistic-like traits in childhood: A twin study. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 42(3), 273–292. doi:10.1080/13682820600939002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L. (1993). MacArthur communicative development inventories: User’s guide and technical manual. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L. (2007). MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories: User’s guide and technical manual (Vol. 2). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grzadzinski, R., Huerta, M., & Lord, C. (2013). DSM-5 and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs): An opportunity for identifying ASD subtypes. Molecular Autism, 4(1), 12. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-4-12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, L. J., & McLeod, S. (2010). Risk and protective factors associated with speech and language impairment in a nationally representative sample of 4- to 5-year-old children. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 53(2), 508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawa, V. V., & Spanoudis, G. (2014). Toddlers with delayed expressive language: An overview of the characteristics, risk factors and language outcomes. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(2), 400–407. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.10.027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), 227–239. doi:10.1348/014466505X29657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herlihy, L., Knoch, K., Vibert, B., & Fein, D. (2015). Parents’ first concerns about toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: Effect of sibling status. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 19(1), 20–28. doi:10.1177/1362361313509731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilbe, J. M. (2009). Logistic regression models. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, J. R., Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2002). The social-emotional development of “late-talking” toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11), 1324–1332. doi:10.1097/00004583-200211000-00014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jamnadass, E. S. L., Keelan, J. A., Hollier, L. P., Hickey, M., Maybery, M. T., & Whitehouse, A. J. O. (2015). The perinatal androgen to estrogen ratio and autistic-like traits in the general population: A longitudinal pregnancy cohort study. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 7(1), 17. doi:10.1186/s11689-015-9114-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kitazoe, N., Inoue, S., Izumoto, Y., Kumagai, N., & Iwasaki, Y. (2015). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient in university students: Pattern of changes in its scores and associated factors. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry, 7(1), 105–112. doi:10.1111/appy.12094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambe, M., Hultman, C., Torrång, A., MacCabe, J., & Cnattingius, S. (2006). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and school performance at age 15. Epidemiology, 17(5), 524–530. doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000231561.49208.be.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Lopez, K., & Lord, C. (2007). Characterizing communicative development in children referred for Autism Spectrum Disorders using the MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventory (CDI). Journal of Child Language, 34(3), 623–654. doi:10.1017/S0305000907008094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Qiu, S., Lopez, K., & Lord, C. (2007). Predicting outcomes of children referred for autism using the MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventory. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(3), 667–681. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/047).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKean, C., Mensah, F. K., Eadie, P., Bavin, E. L., Bretherton, L., Cini, E., & Reilly, S. (2015). Levers for language growth: Characteristics and predictors of language trajectories between 4 and 7 years. PLoS ONE, 10(8). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134251.

  • Murray, A. L., Booth, T., McKenzie, K., & Kuenssberg, R. (2015). What range of trait levels can the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) measure reliably? An item response theory analysis. Psychological Assessment. doi:10.1037/pas0000215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newnham, J. P., Evans, S. F., Michael, C. A., Stanley, F. J., & Landau, L. I. (1993). Effects of frequent ultrasound during pregnancy: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 342(8876), 887–891. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)91944-H.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. J., Paton, B., Enticott, P. G., & Hohwy, J. (2015). ‘Subtypes’ in the presentation of autistic traits in the general adult population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(5), 1291–1301. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2289-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R., & Roth, F. P. (2011). Characterizing and predicting outcomes of communication delays in infants and toddlers: Implications for clinical practice. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(3), 331–340. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2010/09-0067).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pyhälä, R., Hovi, P., Lahti, M., Sammallahti, S., Lahti, J., Heinonen, K., et al. (2014). Very low birth weight, infant growth, and autism-spectrum traits in adulthood. Pediatrics, 134(6), 1075–1083. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1097.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, S., Wake, M., Ukoumunne, O. C., Bavin, E., Prior, M., Cini, E., et al. (2010). Predicting language outcomes at 4 years of age: Findings from early language in Victoria study. Pediatrics, 126(6), e1530–e1537. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (1989). The Language Development Survey: A screening tool for delayed language in toddlers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54(4), 587–599. doi:10.1044/jshd.5404.587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (2009). Age 17 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers: Support for a dimensional perspective on language delay. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52(1), 16–30. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0171).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (2011). Late talkers: Do good predictors of outcome exist? Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 17(2), 141–150. doi:10.1002/ddrr.1108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L., & Achenbach, T. M. (2002). Use of the Language Development Survey (LDS) in a national probability sample of children 18 to 35 months old. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(4), 733.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L., & Safyer, P. (2013). Lexical composition in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Child Language, 40(1), 47–68. doi:10.1017/S0305000912000232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, M. L., Taylor, C. L., & Zubrick, S. R. (2008). Language outcomes of 7-year-old children with or without a history of late language emergence at 24 months. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(2), 394–407. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/029).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell-Smith, S. N., Maybery, M. T., & Bayliss, D. M. (2011). Relationships between autistic-like and schizotypy traits: An analysis using the Autism Spectrum Quotient and Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(2), 128–132. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Smith, P., Watson, P., Auyeung, B., Ring, H., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). Measuring autistic traits in the general population: A systematic review of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a nonclinical population sample of 6,900 typical adult males and females. Molecular Autism, 6(1), 2. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-6-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, F. J., Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., & Brayne, C. (2002). The CAST (Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test): Preliminary development of a UK screen for mainstream primary-school-age children. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 6(1), 9–31. doi:10.1177/1362361302006001003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • StataCorp (2013). Stata statistical software: Release 13. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steer, C. D., Golding, J., & Bolton, P. F. (2010). Traits contributing to the autistic spectrum (traits and autistic spectrum). PLoS ONE, 5(9), e12633. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012633.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M. E., & Austin, E. J. (2010). The structure of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from a student sample in Scotland. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(1), 88. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.08.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoch, Y. K., Williams, C. J., Granich, J., Hunt, A. M., Landau, L. I., Newnham, J. P., & Whitehouse, A. J. O. (2012). Are prenatal ultrasound scans associated with the autism phenotype? Follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(12), 2693–2701. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1526-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, C. L., Christensen, D., Lawrence, D., Mitrou, F., & Zubrick, S. R. (2013). Risk factors for children’s receptive vocabulary development from four to eight years in the longitudinal study of Australian children. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e73046. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073046.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wheelwright, S., Auyeung, B., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010). Defining the broader, medium and narrow autism phenotype among parents using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Molecular Autism, 1(1), 10. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-1-10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Holt, B. J., Serralha, M., Holt, P. G., Hart, P. H., & Kusel, M. M. H. (2013). Maternal vitamin D levels and the autism phenotype among offspring. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1495–1504. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1676-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Mattes, E., Maybery, M. T., Dissanayake, C., Sawyer, M., Jones, R. M., et al. (2012). Perinatal testosterone exposure and autistic-like traits in the general population: A longitudinal pregnancy-cohort study. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 4(1), 1–12. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-4-25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Maybery, M., Wray, J. A., & Hickey, M. (2011). No association between early gastrointestinal problems and autistic-like traits in the general population. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53(5), 457–462. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.03915.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Robinson, M., & Zubrick, S. R. (2011). Late talking and the risk for psychosocial problems during childhood and adolescence. Pediatrics, 128(2), e324–e332. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-2782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zubrick, S. R., Taylor, C. L., Rice, M. L., & Slegers, D. W. (2007). Late language emergence at 24 months: An epidemiological study of prevalence, predictors, and covariates. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(6), 1562–1592. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/106).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The Raine Study is funded by the Raine Medical Research Foundation, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), The University of Western Australia, The UWA Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, Curtin University, Edith Cowan University, The Telethon Kids Institute and the Women’s and Infant’s Research Foundation. We are extremely grateful to all the participants and their families who took part in this study, Jenny Mountain (Raine Study Manager) and the whole Raine Study team, which includes data collectors, cohort managers, data managers, clerical staff, research scientists and volunteers. Andrew Whitehouse is funded by a Senior Research Fellowship from the NHMRC (#1077966). David Copland is funded by an ARC Future Fellowship (#FT100100976) and UQ Vice Chancellor’s Research & Teaching Fellowship.

Authors’ Contributions

RA: This study forms part of RA’s PhD. RA assisted with conceptualizing and designing the study, performed the statistical analysis, drafted the manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted. WA, AW, DC, and KM conceived the study and participated in its design, interpretation and discussion of the results, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted. JS participated in its design, interpretation and discussion of the results, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted. SF participated in the design of the study, helped to draft the manuscript and reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted. All authors read and approved the final manuscript as submitted and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Funding

The authors on this paper were also awarded the 2013 UWA-UQ Bilateral Research Collaboration Award (Arnott & Mayberry).

Author information

Affiliations

  1. School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Therapies Building (84A), Services Road, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia

    Rebecca Armstrong, David A. Copland, Sophie Fleming & Wendy Arnott

  2. Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, 100 Roberts Road, Subiaco, Perth, WA, 6008, Australia

    Andrew J. O. Whitehouse

  3. Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Building 71/918, Royal Brisbane & Women’s Hospital Campus, Herston, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia

    James G. Scott & David A. Copland

  4. Metro North Mental Health, The Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD, 4029, Australia

    James G. Scott

  5. Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Building 57, Research Road, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia

    Katie L. McMahon

  6. Hear and Say Centre, 29 Nathan Avenue, Ashgrove, Brisbane, QLD, 4060, Australia

    Wendy Arnott

Authors
  1. Rebecca Armstrong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andrew J. O. Whitehouse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. James G. Scott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. David A. Copland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Katie L. McMahon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sophie Fleming
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Wendy Arnott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rebecca Armstrong.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Ethical approval: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 16 KB)

Supplementary material 2 (DOCX 24 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Armstrong, R., Whitehouse, A.J.O., Scott, J.G. et al. A Relationship Between Early Language Skills and Adult Autistic-Like Traits: Evidence from a Longitudinal Population-Based Study. J Autism Dev Disord 47, 1478–1489 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-3014-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-3014-z

Keywords

  • Autism spectrum disorder
  • Autistic-like traits
  • Early language skills
  • Late talking
  • Raine Study