Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Is Grammar Spared in Autism Spectrum Disorder? Data from Judgments of Verb Argument Structure Overgeneralization Errors

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) aged 11–13 (N = 16) and an IQ-matched typically developing (TD) group aged 7–12 (N = 16) completed a graded grammaticality judgment task, as well as a standardized test of cognitive function. In a departure from previous studies, the judgment task involved verb argument structure overgeneralization errors (e.g., *Lisa fell the cup off the shelf) of the type sometimes observed amongst typically developing children, as well as grammatical control sentences with the same verbs (e.g., The cup fell off the shelf). The ASD group showed a smaller dispreference for ungrammatical sentences (relative to the control sentences) than did the TD group. These findings are indicative of a subtle grammatical impairment in even relatively high-functioning children with ASD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Incidentally, the introduction of DSM-5 has seen a decrease in the number of individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder, as compared with DSM-IV-TR Autistic disorder (AD) and pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS); see Kulage et al. (2014) for a meta-analysis.

  2. Although we also administered the child version of the Reading the mind in the eyes test revised version (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) we did not analyse these results, as a reviewer raised concern regarding the use of this test as a diagnostic measure.

  3. Composite scores were not calculated, as this requires the use of age-scaled scores, which is not appropriate, given that the aim is to match the two differently-aged groups on raw performance.

References

  • Alarcon, M., Yonan, A. L., Gilliam, T. C., Cantor, R. M., & Geschwind, D. H. (2005). Quantitative genome scan and ordered-subsets analysis of autism endophenotypes support language QTLs. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(8), 747–757.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, D. A., & Rapin, I. (1980). Language disorders in preschool children: Predictors of outcome—a preliminary report. Brain and Development, 2(1), 73–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ambridge, B., Pine, J. M., Rowland, C. F., Jones, R. L., & Clark, V. (2009). A semantics-based approach to the “no negative evidence” problem. Cognitive Science, 33(7), 1301–1316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ambridge, B., Pine, J. P., Rowland, C. F., & Young, C. R. (2008). The effect of verb semantic class and verb frequency (entrenchment) on children’s and adults’ graded judgements of argument–structure overgeneralisation errors. Cognition, 106, 87–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Lawson, J., & Spong, A. (2001). Are intuitive physics and intuitive psychology independent? A test with children with Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, 5, 47–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates, D., Maechler, M., & Bolker, B. (2012). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes (statistical package).

  • Bennetto, L., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1996). Intact and impaired memory functions in autism. Child Development, 67(4), 1816–1835.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, A., & Bates, E. (1995). Inducing agrammatic profiles in normals: Evidence for the selective vulnerability of morphology under cognitive resource limitations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 7, 228–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Botting, N., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2003). Autism, primary pragmatic difficulties, and specific language impairment: Can we distinguish them using psycholinguistic markers? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45, 515–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher, J. (1976). Articulation in early childhood autism. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 6, 297–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher, J. (1988). Word fluency in high functioning autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 637–645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, Y., Haines, J., Hutcheson, H., Gardiner, M., Braun, T., Sheffield, V., et al. (2001). Incorporating language phenotypes strengthens evidence of linkage to autism. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 105(6), 539–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brock, J., Norbury, C., Einav, S., & Nation, K. (2008). Do individuals with autism process words in context? Evidence from language-mediated eye-movements. Cognition, 108(3), 896–904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, P. J., & Tomasello, M. (1999). How children constrain their argument structure constructions. Language, 75(4), 720–738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, P. J., Tomasello, M., Dodson, K., & Lewis, L. B. (1999). Young children’s overgeneralizations with fixed transitivity verbs. Child Development, 70(6), 1325–1337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, P. J., & Zizak, O. (2002). Does preemption help children learn verb transitivity? Journal of Child Language, 29, 759–781.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conti-Ramsden, G., Simkin, Z., & Botting, N. (2006). The prevalence of autistic spectrum disorders in adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 621–628.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L., & Ho, H. (2004). The very early identification of autism: Outcome at age 4½–5. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 367–378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eigsti, I. G., & Bennetto, L. (2009). Grammaticality judgements in autism: Deviance or delay. Journal of Child Language, 36, 999–1021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eigsti, I. M., Bennetto, L., & Dadlani, M. (2007). Beyond pragmatics: Morpho-syntactic development in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(6), 1007–1023.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E., Bolton, P., Prior, J., Jordan, H., & Rutter, M. (1997). A family study of autism: Cognitive patterns and levels in parents and siblings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(6), 667–683.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, A., Fein, D., & Naigles, L. R. (2012). Comprehension of wh-questions precedes their production in typical development and autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 5(2), 109–123.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F. (1999). Autism: cognitive deficit or cognitive style? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(6), 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P. (1984). The acquisition of grammatical morphemes in autistic children: A critique and replication of the findings of Bartolucci, Pierce, and Streiner, 1980. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 14(2), 127–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrold, C., Boucher, J., & Russell, J. (1997). Language profiles in children with autism: Theoretical and methodological implications. Autism, 1, 57–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kjelgaard, M. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). An investigation of language impairment in autism: Implications for genetic subgroups. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(2/3), 287–308.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulage, K. M., Smaldone, A. M., & Cohn, E. G. (2014). How will DSM-5 affect autism diagnosis? A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 1918–1932.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., & Pickles, A. (2004). Trajectory of language development in autistic spectrum disorders. In M. Rice & S. F. Warren (Eds.), Developmental language disorders: From phenotypes to etiologies (pp. 1–38). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Kadlec, M., Carter, A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2008). Language assessment and development in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1305–1320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Lopez, K., & Lord, C. (2007). Characterizing communicative development in children referred for autism spectrum disorders using the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI). Journal of Child Language, 34, 623–654.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, D., & Cairns, H. (1996). Eliciting judgements of grammaticality and reference. In D. McDaniel, C. McKee, & H. Cairns (Eds.), Methods for assessing children’s syntax (pp. 233–255). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naigles, L. R., Kelty, E., Jaffery, R., & Fein, D. (2011). Abstractness and continuity in the syntactic development of young children with autism. Autism Research, 4(6), 422–437.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naigles, L. R., & Tovar, A. T. (2012). Portable intermodal preferential looking (IPL): Investigating language comprehension in typically developing toddlers and young children with autism. Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE, 70, e4331. doi:10.3791/4331

  • Park, C. J., Yelland, G. W., Taffe, J. R., & Gray, K. M. (2012). Brief report: The relationship between language skills, adaptive behaviour, and emotional and behaviour problems in pre-schoolers with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(12), 2761–2766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team. (2012). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. http://www.R-project.org/

  • Rapin, I., & Dunn, M. (2003). Update on the language disorders of individuals on the autistic spectrum. Brain and Development, 25(3), 166–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (2002). Language and reading outcomes to age 9 in late-talking toddlers. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 45, 360–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., Mirrett, P., & Burchinal, M. (2001). Receptive and expressive communication development of young males with fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106(3), 216–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. A., Rice, M. L., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2004). Tense marking in children with autism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 429–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). The Social Communication Questionnaire: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorace, A., & Keller, F. (2005). Gradience in linguistic data. Lingua, 115(11), 1497–1524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swensen, L. D., Kelley, E., Fein, D., & Naigles, L. R. (2007). Processes of language acquisition in children with autism: Evidence from preferential looking. Child Development, 78(2), 542–557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (1981). On the nature of linguistic functioning in early infantile autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 11(1), 45–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (1985). Sentence comprehension in autistic children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 2, 5–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H., Calkins, S., Nolin, T., Baumberger, T., Anderson, M., & Chadwick-Dias, A. (1990). A longitudinal study of language acquisition in autistic and Down syndrome children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20(1), 1–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H., Lord, C., & Paul, R. (1997). Language and Communication in autism. In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive development disorders (2nd ed., pp. 335–365). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tek, S., Mesite, L., Fein, D., & Naigles, L. (2014). Longitudinal analyses of expressive language development reveal two distinct language profiles among young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(1), 75–89.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thurm, A., Lord, C., Lee, L., & Newschaffer, C. (2007). Predictors of language acquisition in preschool children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1721–1734.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomblin, B. (2011). Co-morbidity of autism and SLI: Kinds, kin and complexity. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 46(2), 127–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomblin, J. B., Hafeman, L. L., & O’Brien, M. (2003). Autism and autism risk in siblings of children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 38(3), 235–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Lely, H. K. (1996). Specifically language impaired and normally developing children: Verbal passive vs. adjectival passive sentence interpretation. Lingua, 98(4), 243–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2004). The Wechsler Intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). London: Pearson Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weismer, S. E., Lord, C., & Esler, A. (2010). Early language patterns of toddlers on the autism spectrum compared to toddlers with developmental delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1259–1273.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, K., & Rice, M. (1996). Toward tense as a clinical marker of specific language impairment in English-speaking children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1239–1257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Barry, J. G., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2007). The broader language phenotype of autism: A comparison with specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 822–830.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, A. J. O., Barry, J. G., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2008). Further defining the language impairment of autism: Is there a specific language impairment subtype? Journal of Communication Disorders, 41, 319–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D., Botting, N., & Boucher, J. (2008). Language in autism and specific language impairment: Where are the links? Psychological Bulletin, 134, 944–963.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wulfeck, B. (1993). A reaction time study of grammaticality judgements in children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 1208–1215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wulfeck, B., Bates, E., Krupa-Kwiatkowski, M., & Saltzman, D. (2004). Grammaticality sensitivity in children with early focal brain injury and children with specific language impairment. Brain and Language, 88(2), 215–228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the children, parents and teachers who made this research possible. This study was funded by a grant from the Leverhulme Trust (RPG-158). Ben Ambridge and Colin Bannard are Reader and Lecturer in Psychology in the International Centre for Language and Communicative Development (LuCiD) at The University of Liverpool. The support of the Economic and Social Research Council [ES/L008955/1] is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Bedford St South, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK

    Ben Ambridge, Colin Bannard & Georgina H. Jackson

  2. ESRC International Centre for Language and Communicative Development (LuCiD), Manchester, Liverpool and Lancaster, UK

    Ben Ambridge & Colin Bannard

Authors
  1. Ben Ambridge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Colin Bannard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Georgina H. Jackson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ben Ambridge.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Test Sentences

Type

Verb

Intransitive sentence

Transitive sentence

Counterbalance Group A

ALT

Break

The plate broke into pieces

Homer broke the plate into pieces

ALT

Grow

The flowers grew in the greenhouse

Homer grew the flowers in the greenhouse

ALT

Cook

The bread cooked in the oven

Homer cooked the bread in the oven

ALT

Slide

The truck slid across the floor

Bart slid the truck across the floor

ALT

Shatter

The vase shattered into pieces

Bart shattered the vase into pieces

INT

Fall

The cup fell off the shelf

*Lisa fell the cup off the shelf

INT

Arrive

The children arrived at the party

*Marge arrived the children at the party

INT

Laugh

The audience laughed at the joke

*Bart laughed the audience at the joke

INT

Chuckle

The audience chuckled in anticipation

*Bart chuckled the audience in anticipation

INT

Appear

The coin appeared out of thin air

*Homer appeared the coin out of thin air

Counterbalance Group B

ALT

Rip

The dress ripped at the seam

Marge ripped the dress at the seam

ALT

Smash

The glass smashed into bits

Lisa smashed the glass into bits

ALT

Fold

The scarf folded double

Marge folded the scarf double

ALT

Open

The door opened in the hallway

Homer opened the door in the hallway

ALT

Bounce

The ball bounced down the street

Lisa bounced the ball down the street

INT

Go

The bus went along the pavement

*Homer went the bus along the pavement

INT

Tumble

The books tumbled off the table

*Homer tumbled the books off the table

INT

Swim

The fish swam in the tank

*Homer swam the fish in the tank

INT

Disappear

The money disappeared from the bank account

*Marge disappeared the money from the bank account

INT

Vanish

The card vanished into thin air

*Bart vanished the card into thin air

Appendix 2: Training Sentences, and Expected Ratings on the 5-Point Scale

  • The cat drank the milk (5)

  • *The dog the ball played with (1)

  • The frog caught the fly (5)

  • *His teeth man the brushed (1)

  • *The woman said the man a funny story (2–3)

  • *The girl telephoned her friend the news (3–4)

  • The man whispered his friend the joke (4–5)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ambridge, B., Bannard, C. & Jackson, G.H. Is Grammar Spared in Autism Spectrum Disorder? Data from Judgments of Verb Argument Structure Overgeneralization Errors. J Autism Dev Disord 45, 3288–3296 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2487-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2487-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation