Skip to main content

Practitioner’s Guide to Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Infants and Toddlers

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders volume 42, pages 1183–1196 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Recent advances in clinical research have made it possible to diagnosis autism spectrum disorders (ASD) as early as the second year of life. The diagnostic process early in development is often complex, and thus, familiarity with the most recent findings in clinical assessment instruments, early symptoms, and developmental trajectories of young children with autism is essential. This paper provides an empirically based practitioner’s guide to issues and concerns related to early diagnosis of ASD in very young children, documentation of the course and patterns of ASD symptomatology in infants and toddlers, and current understanding in the field of diagnostic outcomes of children identified in the first and second year of life.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Akshoomoff, N. (2006). Use of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning for the assessment of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 12, 169–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baghdadli, A., Picot, M. C., Pascal, C., Pry, R., & Aussilloux, C. (2003). Relationship between age of recognition of first disturbances and severity in young children with autism. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 12, 122–127.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, N. (2005). Bayley scales of infant and toddler development (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S., Luyster, R., Richler, J., & Lord, C. (2008). Diagnostic assessment. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers (pp. 23–49). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V., & Norbury, C. F. (2002). Exploring the borderlands of autistic disorders and specific language impairment: A study using standardized diagnostic instruments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 917–929.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bodfish, J. W., Symons, F. J., Parker, D. E., & Lewis, M. H. (2000). Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: Comparison to mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 237–243.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brian, J., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Smith, I. M., Szatmari, P., et al. (2008). Clinical assessment of autism in high-risk 18-month-olds. Autism, 12, 433–456.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks, R. H., Woodcock, R. W., Weatherman, R. F., & Hill, B. K. (1996). Scales of independent behavior–revised. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Brian, J., Roberts, W., Szatmari, P., & McDermott, C. (2007). A prospective case series of high-risk infants who developed autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 12–24.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., McDermott, C., Rombough, V., & Brian, J. (2008). The autism observation scale for infants: Scale development and reliability data. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 731–738.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Black, D. O., Tewani, S., Connolly, C. E., Kadlec, M. B., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2007). Sex differences in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 86–97.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charman, T., Baron-Cohen, S., Swettenham, J., Baird, G., Drew, A., & Cox, A. (2003). Predicting language outcomes in infants with autism and pervasive developmental disorder. International Journal of Language and Communication, 38, 265–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charman, T., Swettenham, J., Baron-Cohen, S., Cox, A., Baird, G., & Drew, A. (1997). Infants with autism: An investigation of empathy, pretend play, joint attention, and imitation. Developmental Psychology, 33, 781–789.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charman, T., Taylor, E., Drew, A., Cockerill, H., Brown, J.-A., & Barid, G. (2005). Outcome at 7 years of children diagnosed with autism at age 2: Predictive validity of assessments conducted at 2 and 3 years of age and pattern of symptom change over time. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 500–513.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chawarska, K., & Bearss, K. (2008). Assessment of cognitive and adaptive skills. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 50–75). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chawarska, K., Klin, A., Paul, R., Macari, S., & Volkmar, F. (2009). A prospective study of toddlers with ASD: Short-term diagnostic and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1235–1245.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chawarska, K., Klin, A., Paul, R., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Autism spectrum disorder in the second year: Stability and change in syndrome expression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 128–138.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chawarska, K., Klin, A., & Volkmar, F. (2008). Autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. (2005). Autism in infancy and early childhood. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd ed., pp. 223–246). Holboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiang, C., Soong, W., Lin, T., & Rogers, S. J. (2008). Nonverbal communication skills in young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1898–1906.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, H., Amerine-Dickens, M., & Smith, T. (2006). Early intensive behavioral treatment: Replication of the UCLA model in a community setting. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(Suppl 2), S145–S155.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, A., Klein, K., Charman, T., Baird, G., Baron-Cohen, S., Swettenham, J., et al. (1999). Autism spectrum disorders at 20 and 42 months of age: Stability of clinical and ADI-R diagnosis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 719–732.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G. (2008). Early behavioral intervention, brain plasticity, and the prevention of autism spectrum disorder. Developmental Psychopathology, 20, 775–803.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., & Osterling, J. (1997). Early intervention in autism: Effectiveness and common elements of current approaches. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention: Second generation research (pp. 307–326). Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J., et al. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: The Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics, 125, e17–e23.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Giacomo, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7, 131–136.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dearlove, J., & Kearney, D. (1990). How good is general practice developmental screening. British Medical Journal, 300, 1177–1180.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • deBildt, A., Sytema, S., Ketelaars, C., Kraijer, D., Mulder, E., Volkmar, F., et al. (2004). Interrelationship between autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic, autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI-R), and the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR) classification in children and adolescents with mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 129–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (2002). Infant/toddler sensory profiles. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., & Ho, H. H. (2004). The very early identification of autism: Outcome to age 4½–5. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 367–378.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis Weismer, S., Lord, C., & Esler, A. (2010). Early language patterns of toddlers on the autism spectrum compared to toddlers with developmental delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1259–1273.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., & Bates, E. (2007). MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Filipek, P. A., Accardo, P. J., Ashwal, S., Baranek, G. T., Cook, E. H., Jr., Dawson, G., et al. (2000). Practice parameter: Screening and diagnosis of autism: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society. Neurology, 55, 468–479.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (2000). Peabody developmental motor scales (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E. (2005). Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 3–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Smith, I. M., Brian, J., Roberts, W., et al. (2008). Temperament and its relationship to autistic symptoms in a high-risk infant sibling cohort. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 59–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Risi, S., Dawson, G., Tager-Flusberg, H., Joseph, R., Carter, A., et al. (2008). A replication of the autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 642–651.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The autism diagnostic observation schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 613–627.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S., & Handleman, J. (2000). Age and IQ at intake as predictors of placement for young children with autism: A four- to six-year follow-up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 137–142.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S., & Weiss, M. (1998). Right from the start: Behavioral intervention for young children with autism. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, P., & Oakland, T. (2003). Adaptive behavior assessment system (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudry, K., Leadbitter, K., Temple, K., Slonims, V., McConachie, H., Aldred, C., et al. (2010). Preschoolers with autism show greater impairment in receptive compared with expressive language abilities. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 46, 681–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Interactive Autism Network. (2010). Research report #13: From first concern to diagnosis and beyond. Retrieved from http://www.iancommunity.org/cs/ian_researchreports/ian_research report_13.

  • Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 150–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, J. W., & Ackerman, L. J. (1990). Differences in adaptive functioning among people with autism or mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20, 205–219.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrold, C. (2003). A review of research into pretend play in autism. Autism, 7, 379–390.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. P., Myers, S. M., & Council on Children with Disabilities. (2007). Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 120, 1183–1215.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, R., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Lord, C. (2002). Cognitive profiles and social-communicative functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 807–822.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2009). The toddler version of the autism diagnostic interview-revised (Toddler ADI-R): New algorithms. Chicago, IL: Paper presented at the International Meeting of Autism Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2010). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in toddlers and preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders based on the autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS). Autism Research, 3, 162–173.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, J., Ventola, P., Pandey, J., Verbalis, A., Barton, M., Hodgson, S., et al. (2008). Diagnostic stability in very young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 606–615.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klin, A., Saulnier, C., Tsatsanis, K., & Volkmar, F. (2005). Clinical evaluation in autism spectrum disorders: Psychological assessment within a transdisciplinary framework. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 773–798). Holboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. L., Bruinsma, Y., & Koegel, L. K. (2006). Developmental trajectories in early intervention. In R. L. Koegel & L. K. Koegel (Eds.), Pivotal response treatments for autism (pp. 131–140). Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Fredeen, R., & Gengoux, G. (2008). Pivotal response treatment for autism. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 207–242). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lam, K. S. L., & Aman, M. G. (2007). The repetitive behavior scale revised: Independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 855–866.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2006). Development in infants with autism spectrum disorders: A prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 629–638.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R. J., Holman, K. C., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2007). Social and communication development in toddlers with early and later diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 853–864.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lockyer, L., & Rutter, M. (1969). A five- to fifteen-year follow-up study of infantile psychosis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 865–882.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C. (1995). Follow-up of two-year-olds referred for possible autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1365–1382.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., & DiLavore, P. (2006). Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 694–701.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Jr., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 205–222.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2002). Autism diagnostic observation schedule. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., & Schopler, E. (1989). The role of age at assessment, developmental level, and test in the stability of intelligence scores in young autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 483–499.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Gotham, K., Guthrie, W., Coffing, M., Petrak, R., Pierce, K., et al. (2009). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-toddler module: A new module of standardized diagnostic measure for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1305–1320.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEachin, J. J., Smith, T., & Lovass, O. I. (1995). Long-term outcomes for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral intervention. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 97, 359–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, G., Morrier, M., & Daly, T. (1999). An incidental teaching approach to early intervention for toddlers with autism. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 133–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, S., Brian, J., Zwaigenbaum, L., Roberts, W., Szatmari, P., Smith, I., et al. (2006). Early language and communication development of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27, S69–S78.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, E. M. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning: (AGS ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, S. M., Johnson, C. P., & Council on Children with Disabilities. (2007). Management of children with autism spectrum disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics, 120, 1162–1182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadig, A. S., Ozonoff, S., Young, G. S., Rozga, A., Sigman, M., & Rogers, S. J. (2007). A prospective study of response to name in infants at risk for autism. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 378–383.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newborg, J. (2005). Battelle developmental inventory (2nd ed.). Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oller, D. K., Niyogi, P., Gray, S., Richards, J. A., Gilkerson, J., Xu, D., et al. (2010). Automated vocal analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 13354–13359.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Iosif, A. M., Baguio, F., Cook, I. C., Hill, M. M., Hutman, T., et al. (2010). A prospective study of the emergence of early behavioral signs of autism. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 256–266.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Macari, S., Young, G. S., Goldring, S., Thompson, M., & Rogers, S. J. (2008). Atypical object exploration at 12 months of age is associated with autism in a prospective sample. Autism, 12, 457–472.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Young, G., Steinfeld, M., Hill, M., Cook, I., Hutman, T., et al. (2009). How early do parent concerns predict later autism diagnosis? Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 367–375.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R., Chawarska, K., Cicchetti, D., & Volkmar, F. (2008). Language outcomes of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: A two-year follow-up. Autism Research, 1, 97–107.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R., Chawarska, K., Fowler, C., Cicchetti, D., & Volkmar, F. (2007). “Listen my children and you shall hear”: Auditory preferences in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 1350–1364.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R., Fuerst, Y., Ramsay, G., Chawarska, K., & Klin, A. (2011). Out of the mouths of babes: Vocal production in infant siblings of children with ASD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 588–598.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pernet, J., Billiaux, A., Auvin, S., Rakatovao, D., Morin, L., Presedo, A., et al. (2010). Early onset toe-walking in toddlers: A cause for concern? The Journal of Pediatrics, 157, 496–498.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, A., Flanagan, H. E., Geier, J. D., & Freeman, N. L. (2009). Brief report: The Vineland adaptive behavior scales in young children with autism spectrum disorders at different cognitive levels. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1066–1078.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Presmanes, A. G., Walden, T. A., Stone, W. L., & Yoder, P. J. (2007). Effects of different attentional cues on responding to joint attention in younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 133–144.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray-Subramanian, C. E., Huai, N., & Weismer, S. E. (2011). Brief report: Adaptive behavior and cognitive skills for toddlers on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 679–684.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reznick, J. S., Baranek, G. T., Reavis, S., Watson, L. R., & Craid, E. R. (2007). A parent-report instrument for identifying one-year-olds at risk for an eventual diagnosis of autism: The first year inventory. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1691–1710.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richler, J., Bishop, S. L., Kleinke, J. R., & Lord, C. (2007). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 73–85.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, D. L., Fein, D., Barton, M. L., & Green, J. A. (2001). The modified checklist for autism in toddlers: An initial study investigating the early detection of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 131–144.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. (2009). What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? Autism Research, 2, 125–137.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossetti, L. (1990). The Rossetti infant-toddler language scale: A measure of communication and language. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Le Couteur, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Autism diagnostic interview-revised. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saulnier, C. A., & Klin, A. (2007). Brief report: Social and communication abilities in higher functioning individuals with autism and asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 788–793.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen, E., Paul, R., & Chawarska, K. (2010). Vocal Production in Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorders. In R. Paul & P. Flipsen (Eds.), Child speech sound disorders: In Honor of Lawrence Shriberg. San Diego: Plural Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheinkopf, S. J., & Siegel, B. (1998). Home-based behavioral treatment for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28, 15–22.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shevell, M. I., Majnemer, A., Rosenbaum, P., & Abrahamowicz, M. (2001). Profile of referrals for early childhood developmental delay to ambulatory subspecialty clinics. Neurology, 16, 645–650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shic, F., Bradshaw, J., Klin, A., & Chawarska, K. (2011). Limited activity monitoring in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Brain Research, 1380, 246–254.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sices, L., Feudtner, C., McLaughlin, J., Drotar, D., & Williams, M. (2003). How do primary care physicians manage children with possible developmental delays? A national survey with an experimental design. Pediatrics, 113, 274–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W. L., Lee, E. B., Ashford, L., Brissie, J., Hepburn, S. L., Coonrod, E. E., et al. (1999a). Can autism be diagnosed accurately in children under three years? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 219–226.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W. L., McMahon, C. R., & Henderson, L. M. (2008). Use of the screening tool for autism in two-year-olds (STAT) for children under 24 months: An exploratory study. Autism, 12, 557–573.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W. L., Ousley, O. Y., Hepburn, S. L., Hogan, K. L., & Brown, C. S. (1999b). Patterns of adaptive behavior in very young children with autism. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 104, 187–199.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thelen, E. (1979). Rhythmical stereotypies in normal human infants. Animal Behaviour, 27, 699–715.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsatsanis, K. (2005). Neuropsychological characteristics in autism and related conditions. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 365–381). Holboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, L. M., & Stone, W. L. (2007). Variability in outcome for children with an ASD diagnosis at age 2. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 793–802.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ventola, P. E., Kleinman, J., Pandey, J., Barton, M., Allen, S., Green, J., et al. (2006). Agreement among four diagnostic instruments for autism spectrum disorders in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 839–847.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ventola, P., Kleinman, J., Pandey, J., Wilson, L., Esser, E., Boorstein, H., et al. (2007). Differentiating between autism spectrum disorders and other developmental disabilities in children who failed a screening instrument for ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 425–436.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F. R., Klin, A., Siegel, B., Szatmari, P., Lord, C., Campbell, M., et al. (1994). Field trial for autistic disorder in DSM-IV. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1361–1367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F., Lord, C., Bailey, A., Schultz, R., & Klin, A. (2004). Autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 135–170.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F. R., Stier, D. M., & Cohen, D. J. (1985). Age of recognition of pervasive developmental disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1450–1452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voress, J. K., & Maddox, T. (1998). Developmental assessment of young children. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S., & Rogers, S. (2010). Intervening in infancy: Implications for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1300–1320.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E., Dawson, G., Munson, J., & Osterling, J. (2005). Variation in early developmental course in autism and its relation with behavioral outcome at 3–4 years. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 337–350.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A. M., & Prizant, B. M. (2002). Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A., Watt, N., Morgan, L., & Shumway, S. (2007). Social communication profiles of children with autism spectrum disorders late in the second year of life. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 960–975.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A., & Woods, J. (2006). Early social interaction project for children with autism spectrum disorders beginning in the second year of life: A preliminary study. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 26, 67–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A., & Woods, J. (2008). Developmental approaches to treatment. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 170–206). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A. M., Woods, J., Allen, L., Cleary, J., Dickinson, H., & Lord, C. (2004). Early indicators of autism spectrum disorders in the second year of life. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 473–493.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins, L. D., & Robins, D. L. (2008). Brief report: Excluding the ADI-R behavioral domain improves diagnostic agreement in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 972–976.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woods, J., & Wetherby, A. (2003). Early identification of and intervention for infants and toddlers who are at risk for autism spectrum disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34(3), 180–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, P., Stone, W. L., Walden, T., & Malesa, E. (2009). Predicting social impairment and ASD diagnosis in younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1381–1391.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, G. S., Merin, N., Rogers, S. J., & Ozonoff, S. (2009). Gaze behavior and affect at 6 months: Predicting clinical outcomes and language development in typically developing infants and infants at risk for autism. Developmental Science, 12, 798–814.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (2011). Preschool language scales (5th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., Lord, C., Rogers, S., Carter, A., Carver, L., et al. (2009). Clinical assessment and management of toddlers with suspected autism spectrum disorder: Insights from studies of high-risk infants. Pediatrics, 123, 1383–1391.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., Rogers, T., Roberts, W., Brian, J., & Szatmari, P. (2005). Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23, 143–152.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Yale Child Study Center, 40 Temple Street, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA

    Amanda Mossman Steiner, Anne V. Snow & Katarzyna Chawarska

  2. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    Tina R. Goldsmith

Authors
  1. Amanda Mossman Steiner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tina R. Goldsmith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anne V. Snow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Katarzyna Chawarska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amanda Mossman Steiner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Steiner, A.M., Goldsmith, T.R., Snow, A.V. et al. Practitioner’s Guide to Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Infants and Toddlers. J Autism Dev Disord 42, 1183–1196 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1376-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1376-9

Keywords

  • Early diagnosis
  • Clinical evaluation
  • Infants and toddlers