Skip to main content

Performance of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Dimension-Change Card Sort Task

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders volume 40, pages 448–456 (2010)Cite this article

Abstract

Restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders have been conceptualized to reflect impaired executive functions. In the present study, we investigated the performance of 6–17-year-old children with and without an autism spectrum disorder on a dimension-change card sort task that explicitly indicated sorting rules on every trial. Diagnostic groups did not differ in speed of responses after the first rule switch or in speed or accuracy on blocks with mixed versus single sort rules. However, performance of the ASD group was significantly slower and less accurate overall than the typically-developing group. Furthermore, within the ASD group, poorer DCCS task performance did not predict more severe autism symptoms. Implications for the executive dysfunction theory of autism are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV (4th ed.). Washington. DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. New York, NY: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, L., Muldoon, K., Hasan, R., O’Brien, G., & Stewart, M. (2008). Profiling executive dysfunction in adults with autism and comorbid learning disability. Autism, 12(2), 125–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belleville, S., Ménard, É., Mottron, L., & Ménard, M. (2006). Working memory in autism. In T. P. Alloway & S. E. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders (pp. 213–238). New York: NY Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennetto, L., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1996). Intact and impaired memory functions in autism. Child Development, 67(4), 1816–1835.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. (1998). Development of the children’s communication checklist (CCC): A method for assessing qualitative aspects of communicative impairment in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(6), 879–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodfish, J. W., Symons, F. W., & Lewis, M. H. (1999). The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised, Western Carolina Center Research Reports.

  • Bogte, H., Flamma, B., Van Der Meere, J., & Van Engeland, H. (2009). Divided attention capacity in adults with autism spectrum disorders and without intellectual disability. Autism, 13(3), 229–243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christ, S. E., Holt, D. D., White, D. A., & Green, L. (2007). Inhibitory control in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(6), 1155–1165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Church, B. R., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1986). The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge. Cognition, 23, 43–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Bixenman, M., Meiran, N., & Diamond, A. (2001). Task switching in children. Paper presented at the South Carolina Bicentennial Symposium on Attention, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.

  • Constantino, J. N., Davis, S. A., Todd, R. D., Schindler, M. K., Gross, M. M., Brophy, S. L., et al. (2003). Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: Comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(4), 427–433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dempster, N. (1992). The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: Toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Developmental Review, 12, 45–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Kirkham, N. (2005). Not quite as grown-up as we like to think: Parallels between cognition in childhood and adulthood. Psychological Science, 16(4), 291–297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dichter, G. S., Lam, K., Turner-Brown, L., Holtzclaw, T., & Bodfish, J. (2009). Generativity abilities predict communication deficits but not repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord.

  • Geurts, H. M., Corbett, B., & Solomon, M. (2009). The paradox of cognitive flexibility in autism. Trends in cognitive sciences, 13(2), 74–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happe, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C. (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain and Cognition, 61(1), 25–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8(1), 26–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Russell, J., & Robbins, T. W. (1994). Evidence for executive dysfunction in autism. Neuropsychologia, 32(4), 477–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenworthy, L. E., Black, D. O., Wallace, G. L., Ahluvalia, T., Wagner, A. E., & Sirian, L. M. (2005). Disorganization: The forgotten executive dysfunction in high-functioning autism (HFA) spectrum disorders. Developmental neuropsychology, 28(3), 809–827.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkham, N., Cruess, L., & Diamond, A. (2003). Helping children apply their knowledge to their behavior on a dimension-switching task. Developmental Science, 6(5), 449–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, K. S., & Aman, M. G. (2007). The repetitive behavior scale-revised: Independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(5), 855–866.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landry, R., & Bryson, S. E. (2004). Impaired disengagement of attention in young children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(6), 1115–1122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S., & Lai, Z. (2005). Examining the relationship between executive functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms of autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(4), 445–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Jr., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview—Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., Muenz, L. R., & Payton, J. B. (1992). Neuropsychological functioning in nonmentally retarded autistic individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14(5), 749–761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyden, A. (1999). Executive/attention deficits in boys with Asperger syndrome, attention disorder and reading/writing disorder. Autism, 3, 213–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Riordan, M., & Plaisted, K. (2001). Enhanced discrimination in autism. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology, 54(4), 961–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Riordan, M. A., Plaisted, K. C., Driver, J., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). Superior visual search in autism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27(3), 719–730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S. (1995). Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin card sorting test in studies of autism. Neuropsychology, 9(4), 491–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S. (1998). Assessment and remediation of executive dysfunction in autism and Asperger syndrome. In E. Schopler, G. B. Mesibov, & L. J. Kunce (Eds.), Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism? (pp. 263–292). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Cook, I., Coon, H., Dawson, G., Joseph, R. M., Klin, A., et al. (2004). Performance on Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: Evidence from the collaborative programs of excellence in autism network. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 139–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999). Brief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(2), 171–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. (1994). The working memory function of the prefrontal cortices: Implications for developmental and individual differences in cognition. In The development of future-oriented processes (pp. 243–289). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(1), 51–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J. (2002). Implicit versus explicit representation and intra- versus inter-modular processing. Computational Intelligence, 18(1), 55–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, T. W., James, M., Owen, A. M., Sahakian, B. J., McInnes, L., & Rabbitt, P. (1994). Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB): A factor analytic study of a large sample of normal elderly volunteers. Dementia, 5(5), 266–281.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roid, G. H., & Miller, L. J. (1997). Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised. Woodale, IL: Stoelting Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumsey, J. M., & Hamburger, S. D. (1988). Neuropsychological findings in high-functioning men with infantile autism, residual state. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 10(2), 201–221.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. (1997). Autism as an executive disorder. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J., Jarrold, C., & Henry, L. (1996). Working memory in children with autism and with moderate learning difficulties. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(6), 673–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Social communication questionnaire (SCQ): Western Psychological Services.

  • Sasson, N., Turner-Brown, L., Holtzclaw, T., Lam, K. S., & Bodfish, J. (2008). Children with autism demonstrate circumscribed attention during passive viewing of complex social and nonsocial picture arrays. Autism Research, 1, 31–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H., & Oosterlaan, J. (2002). How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behavioural Brain Research, 130(1–2), 3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • South, M., Klin, A., & Ozonoff, S. (1999). The Yale special interests interview. Unpublished measure.

  • South, M., Ozonoff, S., & McMahon, W. M. (2007). The relationship between executive functioning, central coherence, and repetitive behaviors in the high-functioning autism spectrum. Autism, 11(5), 437–451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • South, M., Ozonoff, S., Suchy, Y., Kesner, R. P., McMahon, W. M., & Lainhart, J. E. (2008). Intact emotion facilitation for nonsocial stimuli in autism: Is amygdala impairment in autism specific for social information? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(1), 42–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. A. (1997). Towards an executive dysfunction account of repetitive behaviour in autism. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 57–100). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. A. (1999). Annotation: Repetitive behaviour in autism: A review of psychological research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(6), 839–849.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Geest, J. N., Kemner, C., Camfferman, G., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2001). Eye movements, visual attention, and autism: A saccadic reaction time study using the gap and overlap paradigm. Biological Psychiatry, 50(8), 614–619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. L., Goldstein, G., Carpenter, P. A., & Minshew, N. J. (2005). Verbal and spatial working memory in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 747–756.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11(1), 37–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by R01 MH073402 (Bodfish). G. Dichter was supported by NIH/NCRR K12 RR023248 and by NIMH K23 MH081285. K. S. L. Lam and L. M. Turner-Brown were supported by NICHD T32-HD40127. Assistance for this study was provided by the Subject Registry Core of the UNC Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities (P30 HD03110).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Tia N. Holtzclaw

    Present address: Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA

Affiliations

  1. Neurodevelopmental Disorders Research Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, USA

    Gabriel S. Dichter, Krestin J. Radonovich, Lauren M. Turner-Brown, Kristen S. L. Lam, Tia N. Holtzclaw & James W. Bodfish

  2. Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB# 3366, 101 Manning Drive, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7160, USA

    Gabriel S. Dichter, Lauren M. Turner-Brown, Kristen S. L. Lam, Tia N. Holtzclaw & James W. Bodfish

  3. Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB# 7160, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7160, USA

    Gabriel S. Dichter & James W. Bodfish

  4. Duke-UNC Brain Imaging and Analysis Center, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, 27710, USA

    Gabriel S. Dichter

  5. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Box 3026, Durham, NC, 27710, USA

    Gabriel S. Dichter

  6. Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida College of Medicine, PO Box 100234, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0234, USA

    Krestin J. Radonovich

  7. Center for Development and Learning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB # 7255, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7255, USA

    James W. Bodfish

Authors
  1. Gabriel S. Dichter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Krestin J. Radonovich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lauren M. Turner-Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristen S. L. Lam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tia N. Holtzclaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. James W. Bodfish
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gabriel S. Dichter.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dichter, G.S., Radonovich, K.J., Turner-Brown, L.M. et al. Performance of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Dimension-Change Card Sort Task. J Autism Dev Disord 40, 448–456 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0886-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0886-1

Keywords

  • Autism
  • Set shifting
  • Dimension-change card sort task
  • Repetitive behaviors
  • Executive functioning
  • Children