Skip to main content

Re-visiting Internet Addiction among Taiwanese Students: A Cross-Sectional Comparison of Students’ Expectations, Online Gaming, and Online Social Interaction

Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology volume 43, pages 589–599 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

Using expectancy theory, this study aimed at identifying the attitudinal/behavioral factors that explain the relationship between Internet expectancies and Internet addiction among Taiwanese adolescents. A total of 25,573 students (49.8 % boys and 50.2 % girls) across junior and senior high schools participated in the study. The students reported on their background characteristics, general expectations from the Internet, attitudes toward online social interaction and online gaming, preferences in online social interaction, and dys-controlled online gaming behavior. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the indirect effects of Internet expectancies on Internet addiction through these attitudinal/behavioral factors. The results showed that Internet expectancies positively predicted students’ attitudes toward online games and online social interaction, which in turn predicted their respective preferences or dys-controlled behavior and Internet addiction. The indirect effect of Internet expectancies was higher on Internet addiction via attitudes toward online gaming and dys-controlled online gaming than via attitudes toward and preferences of online social interaction. The indirect effects exhibited a larger impact on boys than on girls. The authors recommend that the expectancies of online gaming and social interaction be addressed in efforts to prevent and attenuate the severity of adolescent Internet addiction.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Andersson, G., Ljotsson, B., & Weise, C. (2011). Internet-delivered treatment to promote health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 24, 168–172. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283438028.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Association, A. P. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Vol. 5). Arlington, VA: American.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. R., & Moore, S. M. (2011). Creation and validation of the personal blogging style scale. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 379–385. doi:10.1089/cyber. 2010.0130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 306–307. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonetti, L., Campbell, M. A., & Gilmore, L. (2010). The relationship of loneliness and social anxiety with children’s and adolescents’ online communication. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13, 279–285. doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P. C., Alfonso, J., & Dunn, M. E. (2011). Gamma hydroxybutyrate use: exploring the influence of outcome expectancies through memory modeling. The American Journal on Addictions, 20, 127–136. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00113.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S.-Y., & Fu, Y.-C. (2009). Internet use and academic achievement: gender differences in early adolescence. Adolescence, 44, 797–812.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S., Weng, L., Su, Y., Wu, H., & Yang, P. (2003). Development of a Chinese internet addiction scale and its psychometric study. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 45, 279–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C., & Peng, H. (2007). Net-friends: Adolescents’ attitudes and experiences vs. teachers’ concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 2394–2413. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.03.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C., Condron, L., & Belland, J. C. (2005). A review of the research on internet addiction. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 363–388. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C., Yu, S., Chen, C., & Wu, H.-C. (2009). Tool, toy, telephone, territory, or treasure of information: elementary school students’ attitudes toward the internet. Computers & Education, 53, 308–316. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C., Wu, H.-C., & Chen, C.-H. (2013). Tool, toy, telephone, territory, trade, or treasure of information: a cross-sectional study of Taiwanese students’ attitudes toward the internet. Chinese Journal of Communication, 6, 202–220. doi:10.1080/17544750.2013.785671.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, R., de Nooijer, J., Brouwer, W., Oenema, A., Brug, J., & de Vries, N. K. (2011). Strategies to facilitate exposure to internet-delivered health behavior change interventions aimed at adolescents or young adults: a systematic review. Health Education & Behavior, 38, 49–62. doi:10.1177/1090198110372878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, M. E., & Goldman, M. S. (1998). Age and drinking-related differences in the memory organization of alcohol expectancies in 3rd-, 6th-, 9th-, and 12th-grade children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 579–585. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.3.579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durkee, T., Kaess, M., Carli, V., Parzer, P., Wasserman, C., Floderus, B., & Wasserman, D. (2012). Prevalence of pathological internet use among adolescents in Europe: demographic and social factors. Addiction, 107, 2210–2222. doi:10.1111/j.1360-04 43.2012.03946.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durndell, A., & Haag, Z. (2002). Computer self efficacy, computer anxiety, attitudes towards the internet and reported experience with the internet, by gender, in an East European sample. Computers in Human Behavior, 18, 521–535. doi:10.1016/S0747-5632(02)00006-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festl, R., Scharkow, M., & Quandt, T. (2013). Problematic computer game use among adolescents, younger and older adults. Addiction, 108, 592–599. doi:10.1111/add.12016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, K., Chan, W. S. C., Wong, P. W. C., & Yip, P. S. F. (2010). Internet addiction: Prevalence, discriminant validity and correlates among adolescents in Hong Kong. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 486–492. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.075002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, M. S. (2002). Expectancy and risk for alcoholism: The unfortunate exploitation of a fundamental characteristic of neurobehavioral adaptation. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 737–746. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02599.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greydanus, D. E., & Greydanus, M. M. (2012). Internet use, misuse, and addiction in adolescents: current issues and challenges. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 24, 283–289. doi:10.1515/ijamh.2012.041.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, P., McGaw, B., & Care, E. (2012). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills. Springer. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-007-2324-5.pdf.

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jang, K. S., Hwang, S. Y., & Choi, J. Y. (2008). Internet addiction and psychiatric symptoms among Korean adolescents. Journal of School Health, 78, 165–171. doi:10.1111/j.17 46–1561.2007.00279.x.

  • Jones, B. T., Corbin, W., & Fromme, K. (2001). A review of expectancy theory and alcohol consumption. Addiction, 96, 57–72. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961575.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K., Ryu, E., Chon, M.-Y., Yeun, E.-J., Choi, S.-Y., Seo, J.-S., & Nam, B.-W. (2006). Internet addiction in Korean adolescents and its relation to depression and suicidal ideation: A questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 43, 185–192. doi:10.10 16/j.ijnurstu.2005.02.005.

  • Ko, H. C., & Kuo, F. Y. (2009). Can blogging enhance subjective well-being through self-disclosure? CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12, 75–79. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ko, C.-H., Yen, J.-Y., Chen, C.-C., Chen, S.-H., & Yen, C.-F. (2005). Gender differences and related factors affecting online gaming addiction among Taiwanese adolescents. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 273–277. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000 158373.85150.57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ko, C.-H., Yen, J.-Y., Yen, C.-F., Lin, H.-C., & Yang, M.-J. (2007). Factors predictive for incidence and remission of internet addiction in young adolescents: a prospective study. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, 545–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ko, C.-H., Yen, J.-Y., Chen, S.-H., Yang, M.-J., Lin, H.-C., & Yen, C.-F. (2009). Proposed diagnostic criteria and the screening and diagnosing tool of Internet addiction in college students. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50, 378–384. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.05.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., & Grasby, P. M. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393, 266–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Online social networking and addiction–a review of the psychological literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8, 3528–3552. doi:10.3390/ijerph8093528.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2012). Internet gaming addiction: a systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10, 278–296. doi:10.1007/s11469-011-9318-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, B. C., & Stacy, A. W. (2004). Alcohol expectancies and drinking in different age groups. Addiction, 99, 215–227. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2003.00641.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, L. (2010). Effects of Internet connectedness and information literacy on quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 98, 273–290. doi:10.1007/s11205-009-9539-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, L., & Lee, P. S. N. (2012). Impact of Internet literacy, Internet addiction symptoms, and Internet activities on academic performance. Social Science Computer Review, 30, 403–418. doi:10.1177/0894439311435217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, M.-P., Ko, H.-C., & Wu, J. Y.-W. (2008). The role of positive/negative outcome expectancy and refusal self-efficacy of Internet use on Internet addiction among college students in Taiwan. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 451–457. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, N. J. (1974). The psychology of animal learning. New York, NY: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mak, K.-K., Lai, C.-M., Ko, C.-H., Chou, C., Kim, D.-I., Watanabe, H., & Ho, R. C. (2014). Psychometric properties of the revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R) in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1–9. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9851-3.

  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meade, A. W., & Craig, S. B. (2012). Identifying careless responses in survey data. Psychological Methods, 17, 437–455. doi:10.1037/a0028085.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2003). Loneliness and social uses of the internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 659–671. doi:10.1016/S0747-5632(03)00040-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno, M. A., Jelenchick, L., Cox, E., Young, H., & Christakis, D. A. (2011). Problematic internet use among US youth: a systematic review. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 165, 797–805. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muscanell, N. L., & Guadagno, R. E. (2012). Make new friends or keep the old: Gender and personality differences in social networking use. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 107–112. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ng, B. D., & Wiemer-Hastings, P. (2005). Addiction to the Internet and online gaming. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8, 110–113. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oei, T. P., & Baldwin, A. R. (1994). Expectancy theory: a two-process model of alcohol use and abuse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55, 525–534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S., Kim, J., & Cho, C. (2008). Prevalence of Internet addiction and correlations with family factors among South Korean adolescents. Adolescence, 43, 895–909.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, R. R., Below, M. C., & Goldman, M. S. (2010). Explicit and implicit measures of expectancy and related alcohol cognitions: a meta-analytic comparison. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 24, 13–25. doi:10.1037/a0016556.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, M. S., & Wong, I. A. (2012). The effect of instant messaging services on society’s mental health. Journal of Services Marketing, 26, 124–136. doi:10.1108/0887604121 1215284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L., Tang, V. M. Y., & Lo, C. Y. (2008). Internet addiction in Chinese adolescents in hong Kong: assessment, profiles, and psychosocial correlates. The Scientific World Journal, 8, 776–787. doi:10.1100/tsw.2008.104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smahel, D., Brown, B. B., & Blinka, L. (2012). Associations between online friendship and Internet addiction among adolescents and emerging adults. Developmental Psychology, 48, 381–388. doi:10.1037/a0027025.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tao, R., Huang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., & Li, M. (2010). Proposed diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction. Addiction, 105, 556–564. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443. 2009.02828.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Kormas, G., Filippopoulou, A., Tounissidou, D., Freskou, A., & Kafetzis, D. (2008). Internet use and misuse: a multivariate regression analysis of the predictive factors of internet use among Greek adolescents. European Journal of Pediatrics, 168, 655–665. doi:10.1007/s00431-008-0811-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Eijnden, R. J., Meerkerk, G.-J., Vermulst, A. A., Spijkerman, R., & Engels, R. C. (2008). Online communication, compulsive Internet use, and psychosocial well-being among adolescents: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44, 655–665. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649.44.3.655.

  • van Rooij, A. J., Schoenmakers, T. M., van de Eijnden, R. J., & van de Mheen, D. (2010). Compulsive internet use: the role of online gaming and other internet applications. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47, 51–57. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.12.021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West, R., & Hardy, A. (2005). Theory of addiction. New York, NY: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. (2006). Internet addiction: a critical review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4, 31–51. doi:10.1007/s11469-006-9009-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler, A., Dörsing, B., Rief, W., Shen, Y., & Glombiewski, J. A. (2013). Treatment of internet addiction: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 317–329. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.12.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, S. C., & Tung, C.-J. (2007). Comparison of internet addicts and non-addicts in Taiwanese high schools. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 79–96. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9, 772–775. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9.772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, J.-Y., Ko, C.-H., Yen, C.-F., Wu, H.-Y., & Yang, M.-J. (2007). The comorbid psychiatric symptoms of internet addiction: attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, social phobia, and hostility. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 93–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, J.-Y., Ko, C.-H., Yen, C.-F., Chen, C.-S., & Chen, C.-C. (2009). The association between harmful alcohol use and internet addiction among college students: comparison of personality. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 63, 218–224. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.01943.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, J.-Y., Yen, C.-F., Wu, H.-Y., Huang, C.-J., & Ko, C.-H. (2011). Hostility in the real world and online: the effect of internet addiction, depression, and online activity. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 649–655. doi:10.1089/cyber. 2010.0393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, J.-Y., Yen, C.-F., Chen, C.-S., Wang, P.-W., Chang, Y.-H., & Ko, C.-H. (2012). Social anxiety in online and real-life interaction and their associated factors. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15, 7–12. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0015.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: the emergence of a new clinical disorder. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1, 237–244. doi:10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan under grant number MOST 100-2511-S-009-MY3. The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for their valuable comments and suggestions to improve the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Education, National Taichung University of Education, 140 Minsheng Rd, Taichung City, 403, Taiwan, Republic of China

    Yuan-Hsuan Lee

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

    Chih-Hung Ko

  3. Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

    Chih-Hung Ko

  4. Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

    Chih-Hung Ko

  5. Institute of Education, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Rd., Hsinchu City, 300, Taiwan, Republic of China

    Chien Chou

  6. Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, 100 Tzyou 1st Road, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 807, Republic of China

    Chien Chou

Authors
  1. Yuan-Hsuan Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chih-Hung Ko
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chien Chou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chien Chou.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(DOCX 126 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lee, YH., Ko, CH. & Chou, C. Re-visiting Internet Addiction among Taiwanese Students: A Cross-Sectional Comparison of Students’ Expectations, Online Gaming, and Online Social Interaction. J Abnorm Child Psychol 43, 589–599 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9915-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9915-4

Keywords

  • Internet expectancy
  • Gender differences
  • Online interaction
  • Online gaming
  • Internet addiction