Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Rumination and its Association with Depressive Symptoms

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rumination is an important cognitive vulnerability for adolescent and adult depression. However, little is known about the aetiological origins of rumination, as well as its association with depression. Adolescent rumination (self-report) and depressive symptoms (self- and parent-report) were assessed in 674 pairs of same-gender Chinese adolescent twins (11–17 years of age). Females accounted for 53.7 % of the sample. There were significant correlations between self-reported rumination and self-reported depression (r = 0.41), as well as parent-reported adolescent depression (r = 0.22). Genetic influences were significant and modest on all three measures, ranging from 24 % to 42 %. The three measures were also significantly influenced by shared environment, ranging from 20 % to 28 %, and non-shared environmental factors, ranging from 30 % to 56 %. Moreover, the genetic correlations between rumination and depression were significant (within-rater: r g = 0.99; cross-rater: r g = 0.59) and largely accounted for the phenotypic correlations (within-rater: 68 %; cross-rater: 77 %), while non-shared environmental correlations were also significant (within-rater: r e = 0.26; cross-rater: r e = 0.12) and accounted for the remainder of the phenotypic correlations (within-rater: 32 %; cross-rater: 23 %). The shared environmental correlations were non-significant. No significant gender and age differences were found in aetiological models. These findings suggest that rumination may be an endophenotype reflecting genetic risk for depression.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2011). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression during the transition from early to middle adolescence: a multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Brozina, K., & Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third-and seventh-grade children: a short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515–527.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Vanderbilt, E., & Rochon, A. (2004). A test of the integration of the response styles and social support theories of depression in third and seventh grade children. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 653–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Aydin, C. M., & Auerbach, R. P. (2007). Responses to depression in children: reconceptualizing the relation among response styles. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 913–927.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Parkinson, C., Stolow, D., & Starrs, C. (2009). A test of the integration of the hopelessness and response styles theories of depression in middle adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 354–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Gibb, B. E., Crossfield, A. G., Pieracci, A. M., Spasojevic, J., et al. (2004). Developmental antecedents of cognitive vulnerability to depression: review of findings from the cognitive vulnerability to depression project. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 18, 115–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beevers, C. G., Wells, T. T., & McGeary, J. E. (2009). The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism is associated with rumination in healthy adults. Emotion, 9, 579–584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, S. E., Gardner, C. O., & Kendler, K. S. (2008). Age-related changes in heritbibility of behavioral phenotypes over adolescence and young adulthood: a meta-analysis. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 423–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, S., Miranda, R., & Surrence, K. (2009). Subtypes of rumination in the relationship between negative life events and suicidal ideation. Archives of Suicide Research, 13, 123–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, X., Liu, M., & Li, D. (2000). Parental warmth, control, and indulgence and their relations to adjustment in Chinese children: a longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 401–419.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z., Guo, F., Yang, X., Li, X., Duan, Q., Zhang, J., et al. (2009). Emotional and behavioral effects of romantic relationships in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1282–1293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J., Li, X., Chen, Z., Yang, X., Zhang, J., Ge, X. J., et al. (2010). Optimization of zygosity determination by questionnaire and DNA genotyping in Chinese adolescent twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 2, 194–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J., Li, X., Zhang, J. X., Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., et al. (2013). The Beijing Twin Study (BeTwist): a longitudinal study of child and adolescent development. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 16, 91–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clasen, P., Wells, T., Knopik, V., McGeary, J., & Beevers, C. (2011). 5–HTTLPR and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms moderate effects of stress on rumination. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 10, 740–746.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., & Martin, N. C. (2005). The longitudinal structure of the Children’s Depression Inventory: testing a latent trait-state model. Psychological Assessment, 17, 144–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Tram, J. M., Martin, J. M., Hoffman, K. B., Ruiz, M. D., Jacquez, F. M., et al. (2002). Individual differences in the emergence of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: a longitudinal investigation of parent and child reports. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 156–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eley, T. C., & Stevenson, J. (1999). Exploring the covariation between anxiety and depression symptoms: a genetic analysis of the effects of age and sex. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 1273–1282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eley, T. C., Gregory, A. M., Lau, J. Y. F., McGuffin, P., Napolitano, M., Clark, D. M., et al. (2008). In the face of uncertainty: a twin study of ambiguous information, anxiety and depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 55–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J. (2012). Translating basic psychopathology research to preventive interventions: a tribute to John R.Z. Abela. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 666–681.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibb, B. E., Grassia, M., Stone, L. B., Uhrlass, D. J., & McGeary, J. E. (2012). Brooding rumination and risk for depressive disorders in children of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 317–326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I., & Gould, T. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 636–645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grassia, M., & Gibb, B. E. (2008). Rumination and prospective changes in depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 931–948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L. (2005). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: prospective tests of attachment, cognitive vulnerability, and stress as mediating processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 645–671.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L. (2008a). Rumination and depression in adolescence: investigating symptom specificity in a multiwave prospective study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 701–713.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L. (2008b). Stability of cognitive vulnerability to depression: a short-term prospective multiwave study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 324–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L. (2012). Future directions in vulnerability to depression among youth: interating risk factors and processes across multiple levels of analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 695–718.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Depression from childhood though adolescence and adulthood: A developmental vulnerability-stress perspective. In B. L. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective (pp. 245–288). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Oppenheimer, C., Jenness, J., Barrocas, A., Shapero, B. G., & Goldband, J. (2009). Developmental origins of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression: review of processes contributing to stability and change across time. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1327–1338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happonen, M., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., Van der Meere, J., Viken, R. J., & Rose, R. J. (2002). The heritability of depressive symptoms: multiple informants and multiple measures. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 471–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilt, L. M., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Getting out of rumination: comparison of three brief interventions in a sample of youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1157–1165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilt, L. M., Sander, L. C., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Simen, A. A. (2007). The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism predicts rumination and depression differently in young adolescent girls and their mothers. Neuroscience Letters, 429, 12–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilt, L. M., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). Examination of the response styles theory in a community sample of young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 545–556.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, W., Abela, J. R. Z., Cohen, J. R., Sheshko, D. M., Shi, X. T., Hamel, A. V., et al. (2010). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression in adolescents in Mainland China: lifetime hisotry of clinically significant depressive episodes. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 849–857.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huffziger, S., Reinhard, I., & Kuehner, C. (2009). A longitudinal study of rumination and distraction in formerly depressed inpatients and community controls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 746–756.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hur, Y. M. (2008). Sex differences in genetic and environmental contributions to depression symptoms in South Korean adolescent and young adult twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 11, 306–313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juhasz, G., Dunham, J., McKie, S., Thomas, E., Downey, D., Chase, D., et al. (2011). The CREB1-BDNF-NTRK2 pathway in depression: multiple gene-cognition-environment interactions. Biological Psychiatry, 69, 762–771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochel, K. P., Ladd, G. W., & Rudolph, K. D. (2012). Longitudinal associations among youth depressive symptoms, peer victimization and low peer acceptance: an interpersonal process perspective. Child Development, 83, 637–650.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M., & Staff, M. (2003). Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI): Technical manual update. North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems. Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., & Cook, W. (2006). Rumination in adolescents at risk for depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 96, 39–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, D. J., Middeldorp, C. M., van Beijsterveldt, C. E., Bartels, M., van der Aa, N., Polderman, T. J., et al. (2010). Heritability of anxious-depressive and withdrawn behavior: age-related changes during adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 248–255.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langrock, A. M., Compas, B. E., Keller, G., Merchant, M. J., & Copeland, M. E. (2002). Coping with the stress of parental depression: parents’ reports of children’s coping, emotional, and behavioral problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 312–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. Y. F., & Eley, T. C. (2008). Attributional style as a risk marker of genetic effects for adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 849–859.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. Y. F., Rijsdijk, F., & Eley, T. C. (2005). I think, therefore I am: a twin study of attributional style in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 696–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, H., & Eley, T. C. (2005). A monozygotic twin differences study of nonshared environmental influence on adolescent depressive symptoms. Child Development, 76, 1247–1260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manfredi, C., Caselli, G., Rovetto, F., Rebecchi, D., Ruggiero, G. M., Sassaroli, S., et al. (2011). Temperament and parental styles as predictors of ruminative brooding and worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 186–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mash, E. J., & Hunsley, J. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of child and adolescent disorders: issues and challenges. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 362–379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). Mechanisms linking stressful life events and mental health problems in a prospective, community-based sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44, 153–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Hilt, L. M. (2009). Emotion dysregulation as a mechanism linking peer victimization to internalizing symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 894–904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendelson, T., Greenberg, M. T., Dariotis, J. K., Gould, L. F., Rhoades, B. L., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness intervention for urban youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 985–994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mezulis, A., Simonson, J., McCauley, E., & Vander Stoep, A. (2011). The association between temperament and depressive symptoms in adolescence: brooding and reflection as potential mediators. Cognition & Emotion, 25, 1460–1470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Fokke, M., & Kwik, D. (2009). The ruminative response style in adolescents: an examination of its specific link to symptoms of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, 21–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neale, M. C., Boker, S. M., Xie, G., & Maes, H. H. (2003). Mx: Statistical modeling. Richmond: Department of Psychiatry. Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavior Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, S. A., Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Neuroticism and ruminative response style as predictors of change in depressive symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 445–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pike, A., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., & Plomin, R. (1996). Using MZ differences in the search for nonshared environmental effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 695–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F. (2009). The genetics of depression in childhood and adolescence. Current Psychiatry Reports, 11, 167–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F. (2010). Genetics of childhood and adolescent depression: insights into etiological heterogeneity and challenges for future genomic research. Genome Medicine, 2, 68–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G., & Thapar, A. (2002). The genetic aetiology of childhood depression: a review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 65–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G., & Thapar, A. (2003). Negative life events as an account of age-related differences in the genetic aetiology of depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 977–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roelofs, J., Huibers, M., Peeters, F., & Arntz, A. (2008). Effects of neuroticism on depression and anxiety: rumination as a possible mediator. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 576–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2002). Gene-environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioural disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 463–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, O. S., Dudgen, P., Sheeber, L. B., Yap, M. B. H., Simmons, J. G., & Allen, N. B. (2012). Parental behavior during family interactions predict changes in depression and anxiety symptoms during adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 59–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scourfield, J., Rice, F., Thapar, A., Harold, G. T., Martin, N., & McGuffin, P. (2003). Depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: changing aetiological influences with development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 968–976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spasojevic, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2002). Who becomes a depressive ruminator? Developmental antecedents of ruminative response style. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 405–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tram, J. M., & Cole, D. A. (2006). A multimethod examination of the stability of depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 674–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., Pang, Z., Guo, Q., Ning, F., Gallaher, P., et al. (2011). Heritability of smoking, alcohol use, and psychological characteristics among adolescent twins in Qingdao, China. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health, 23, 568–580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verstraeten, K., Vasey, M. W., Raes, F., & Bijttebier, P. (2009). Temperament and risk for depressive symptoms in adolescence: mediation by rumination and moderation by effortful control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 349–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waldman, I. D. (2005). Statistical approaches to complex phenotypes: evaluating neuropsychological endophenotypes for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1347–1356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitmer, A. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Depressive rumination and the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zavos, H., Rijsdijk, F. V., Gregory, A. M., & Eley, T. C. (2010). Genetic influences on the cognitive biases associated with anxiety and depression symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 124, 45–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr. John R.Z. Abela for help with providing and translation of Children’s Response Styles Questionnaire. The passing of John Abela is a tremendous loss in this field. We also thank Dr. Raymond C.K. Chan for help with advise on writing this paper. This study was supported by the Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KSCX2-EW-J-8), Funds for young scholars of Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science (Y0CX351S01) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31170993). This research was also supported by Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and the BeTwiSt of Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. We are grateful to participating twin families and schools.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 16 Lincui Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China

    Jie Chen & Xinying Li

Authors
  1. Jie Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xinying Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xinying Li.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chen, J., Li, X. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Rumination and its Association with Depressive Symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41, 1289–1298 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9757-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9757-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation