Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Association of Positive and Negative Parenting Behavior with Childhood ADHD: Interactions with Offspring Monoamine Oxidase A (MAO-A) Genotype

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Relatively little is known about the potential interplay between genetic and environmental influences on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), including gene-environment interaction (G×E). There is evidence that parenting behavior interacts with offspring genotype in the development of externalizing problems, but studies have largely focused on explicit maltreatment rather than differentiated measures of parenting behavior, including positive and negative parenting. We tested the interactive effects of the 30-base pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAO-A) with positive and negative parenting behavior on parent- and teacher ratings of inattention and hyperactivity symptoms among 150 6–9 year-old boys with and without ADHD. Negative parenting predicted parent and teacher ratings of inattention symptoms, but only among boys with high-activity MAO-A genotype. MAO-A genotype did not moderate the association of positive parenting and parent- and teacher ratings of ADHD. We discuss the potential role of interactive exchanges between parenting behavior and child genotype in the development and persistence of ADHD and related behavior problems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Because racial-ethnic differences have been reported in MAO-A functioning (Sabol et al. 1998), we also report results for Caucasians boys only (n = 70). The results were mostly consistent with our overall model for all boys. The interaction of negative parenting and MAO-A was significant for parent- (B = .63, SE = .24. p < .01) and teacher-rated inattention (B = 3.23, SE = 1.47, p = .04), but not for parent or (B = .18, SE = .22, p = .41) teacher-rated hyperactivity (B = .98, SE = 1.13, p = .40). The association on negative parenting and parent-rated inattention symptoms was only significant for boys with the high-activity genotype (B = .50, SE = .18, p > .01), but not significant for teacher ratings of inattention (B = −.11, SE = .24, p = .66). Furthermore, the association of negative parenting and inattention was not significant for boys with the low activity genotype (parent model: B = −.33, SE = .33, p = .33; teacher model: B = .24, SE = .87, p = .80). For positive parenting, the interaction of MAO-A and positive parenting was not significant for parent-rated (B = −.22, SE = .22, p = .32) or teacher rated inattention (B = −.25, SE = .27, p = .36). Similarly, the interaction of positive parenting and MAO-A was not significant for parent-rated and teacher-rated hyperactivity (B = .11, SE = .19, p = .56 and B = −.35, SE = .21, p = .11, respectively).

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). Gene-environment interaction of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) and observed maternal insensitivity predicting externalizing behavior in pre-schoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 406–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Pijlman, F. T. A., Mesman, J., & Juffer, F. (2008). Developmental Psychology, 44, 293–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beitchman, J. H., Mik, H. M., Ehtesham, S., Douglas, L., & Kennedy, J. L. (2004). MAOA and persistent, pervasive childhood aggression. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 546–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Kim, J. W., Doyle, A. E., Mick, E., Fagerness, J., Smoller, J. W., et al. (2008). Sexually dimorphic effects of four genes (COMT, SLC6A2, MAOA, SLC6A4) in genetic associations of ADHD: a preliminary study. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B, 1511–1518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brambor, T., Clark, W. R., & Golder, M. (2005). Understanding interaction models: improving empirical analyses. Political Analysis, 13, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckholtz, J. W., Callicott, J. H., Kolachana, B., Hariri, A. R., Goldberg, T. E., Genderson, M., et al. (2008). Genetic variation in MAOA modulate ventromedial prefrontal circuitry mediating individual differences in human personality. Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 313–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, S. A., McGrue, M., Krueger, R. F., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). Environmental contributions to adolescent delinquency: a fresh look at shared environment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 787–800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrel, L., & Willard, H. F. (2005). X-inactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females. Nature, 434, 400–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cases, O., Seif, I., Grimsby, J., Gaspar, P., Chen, K., Pournin, S., et al. (1995). Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science, 268, 1763–1766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chronis, A. M., Lahey, B., Pelham, W. E., Williams, S. H., Baumann, B. L., Kipp, H., et al. (2007). Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 43, 70–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chronis-Tuscano, A. M., Raggi, V. L., Clarke, T. L., Rooney, M. E., Diaz, Y., & Pian, J. (2008). Associations between maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1237–1250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Congdon, E., Lesch, K. P., & Canli, T. (2008). Analysis of DRD4 and DAT polymorphisms and behavioral inhibition in healthy adults: implications for impulsivity. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147, 27–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dadds, M. R., Maujean, A., & Fraser, J. A. (2003). Parenting and conduct problems in children: Australian data and psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. Australian Psychologist, 38, 238–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das, M., Bhowmik, A. D., Sinha, S., Chattopadhyay, A., Chaudhuri, K., Singh, M., et al. (2006). MAOA promoter polymorphism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in Indian children. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141B, 637–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2006). Dysfunction in the neural circuit of emotion regulation – A possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A. C., Dodge, K. A., Latendresse, S. J., Lansford, J. E., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., et al. (2010). MAOA-uVNTR and early physical discipline interact to influence delinquent behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 679–687.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B., & Nigg, J. (2009). Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: new findings suggest partial specificity of effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 146–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evenden, J. L. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 146, 348–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone, S. V., Sergeant, J., Gillberg, C., & Biederman, J. (2003). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry, 2, 104–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. S., Alia-Klein, N., Kriplani, A., Logan, J., Williams, B., Zhu, W., et al. (2007). Evidence that brain MAOA activity does not correspond to MAOA genotype in healthy male subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 355–358.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (1991). The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. University of Alabama.

  • Frick, P. J., & Dantagnan, A. L. (2005). Predicting the stability of conduct problems in children with and without callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14, 469–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Froehlich, T. E., Lanphear, B. P., Epstein, J. N., Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., & Kahn, R. S. (2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 857–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel, S. B., Schaffner, S. F., Nguyen, H., Moore, J. M., Roy, J., Blumenstiel, B., et al. (2002). The structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome. Science, 296, 2225–2229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gauderman, W. J. (2002). Sample size requirements for association studies of gene-gene interactions. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155, 478–487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gizer, I., Ficks, C., & Waldman, I. (2009). Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Human Genetics, 126, 51–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2006). Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 555–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, P. C., & Gallagher, M. (1999). Amygdala circuitry in attentional and representational processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 65–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hudziak, J. J., Heath, A. C., Madden, P. F., Reich, W., Bucholz, K. K., Slutske, W., et al. (1998). Latent class and factor analysis of DSM-IV ADHD: a twin study of female adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 848–857.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2007). Gene-environment correlations: a review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 432–442.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperacitivty disorder: review of recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 183–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, R. S., Khoury, J., Nichols, W. C., & Lanphear, B. P. (2003). Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. Journal of Pediatrics, 143, 104–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, T., Dong, B., Ishii, K., & Kinemuchi, H. (1986). Brain dialysis: in vivo metabolism of dopamine and serotonin by monoamine oxidase A but not B in the striatum of unrestrained rats. Journal of Neurochemistry, 46, 1277–1282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Williams, B., Newcombe, R., Craig, I. W., et al. (2006). MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 903–913.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klive, E., Kurrikoff, T., Maestu, J., & Harro, J. (2010). Effect of alpha2A-adrenoceptor C-1291 g genotype and maltreatment on hyperactivity and inattention in adolescents. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34, 219–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Stein, M. A., Loney, J., Trapani, C., Nugent, K., et al. (1998). Validity of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder for younger children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 695–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., Lee, S. S., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pelham, W. E., Waldman, I. D., et al. (2011). Interactions between early parenting and a polymorphism of the child’s dopamine transporter gene in predicting future child conduct disorder symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 33–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langley, K., Fowler, T., Ford, T., Thapar, A. K., van den Bree, M., Harold, G., et al. (2010). Adolescent clinical outcomes for young people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 235–240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, D. C., Turic, D., Langley, K., Pay, H. M., Govan, C. F., Norton, N., et al. (2003). Association analysis of monoamine oxidase A and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 116, 84–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. S., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Keenan, K., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Van Hulle, C. A., et al. (2010). Association of maternal dopamine transporter genotype with negative parenting: evidence for gene x environment interaction with child disruptive behavior. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 548–558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., et al. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalami-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science, 277, 1659–1662.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luan, J. A., Wong, M. Y., Day, N. E., & Wareham, N. J. (2001). Sample size determination for studies of gene-environment interaction. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 1035–1040.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lytton, H. (1990). Child and parent effects in boys’ conduct disorder: a reinterpretation. Developmental Psychology, 26, 683–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manor, I., Tyano, S., Mel, E., Eisenberg, J., Bachner-Melman, R., Kotler, M., et al. (2002). Family-based and association studies of monoamine oxidase A and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD: preferential transmission of the long promoter region repeat and its association with impaired performance on a continuous performance test (TOVA). Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 625–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martel, M. M., Nikolas, M., Jernigan, K., Friderici, K., Waldman, I., & Nigg, J. T. (2010). The dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) moderates family environmental effects on ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 39, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick, S. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2000). Emotion regulation and parenting in AD/HD and comparison boys: linkages with social behaviors and peer preference. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 73–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Lindenberg, A., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006). Intermediate phenotypes and genetic mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 818–827.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Buckholtz, J. W., Kolachana, B., Hariri, A. R., Pezawas, L., Blasi, G., et al. (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 6269–6274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (2005). The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 533–554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molina, B. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., Arnold, L. E., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P. S., et al. (2009). The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 484–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J., Nikolas, M., & Burt, S. A. (2010). Measured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 863–873.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolas, M. A., & Burt, S. A. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on ADHD symptom dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 1–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 210–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Foster, E. M., & Robb, J. A. (2007). The economic impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 7, 121–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context, and children’s adjustment: a seven-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 68, 908–923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., Rathouz, P. J., & Judice, S. (2005). Family correlates of oppositional and conduct disorder in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 551–563.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pluess, M., Belsky, J., Way, B. M., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). 5-HTTLPR moderates effects of current life events on neuroticism: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34, 1070–1074.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Q. J., Yang, L., Wang, Y. F., Zhang, H. B., Guan, L. L., Chen, Y., et al. (2010). Gene–gene interaction between COMT and MAOA potentially predicts the intelligence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder boys in China. Behavior Genetics, 40, 57–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roohi, J., DeVincent, C. J., Hatchwell, E., & Gadow, K. D. (2009). Association of a monoamine oxidase-A gene promoter polymorphism with ADHD and anxiety in boys with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 39, 67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Royston, P., Altman, D. G., & Sauerbrei, W. (2005). Dichotomizing continuous predictors in multiple regression: a bad idea. Statistics in Medicine, 25, 127–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabol, S. Z., Hu, S., & Hamer, D. (1998). A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene promoter. Human Genetics, 103, 273–279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Lerch, J., Greenstein, D., Sharp, W., Clasen, L., Evans, A., et al. (2006). Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 540–549.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Wootton, J. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 317–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sjoberg, R. L., Nilsson, K. W., Wargelius, H. L., Leppert, J., Lindstrom, L., & Oreland, L. (2007). Adolescent girls and criminal activity: role of MAOA-LPR genotype and psychosocial factors. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 159–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, T. J., Adler, L. A., McGough, J. J., Muniz, R., Jiang, H., & Pestreich, L. (2007). Efficacy and safety of dexmethylphenidate extended-release capsules in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1380–1387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M. H., Mundy, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1432–1437.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Kinsbourne, M., Nigg, J., Lanphear, B., Stefanatos, G. A., Volkow, N., et al. (2007). Etiologic subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: brain imaging, molecular genetic and environmental factors and the dopamine hypothesis. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 39–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szyf, M., McGowan, P., & Meaney, M. J. (2007). The social environment and the epigenome. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 49, 46–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. (2010). Methods for investigation gene-environment interactions in candidate pathway and genome-wide association studies. Annual Review of Public Health, 31, 21–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanyukov, M. M., Maher, B. S., Devlin, B., Kirillova, G. P., Kirisci, L., Yu, L. M., et al. (2008). The MAOA promoter polymorphism, disruptive behavior disorders, and early onset substance use disorders: gene-environment interaction. Psychiatric Genetics, 17, 323–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag, L. S., Kistner, E. O., Pine, D. S., Biesecker, G., Pickett, K. E., Skol, A. D., et al. (2010). Interaction of prenatal exposure to cigarettes and MAOA genotype in pathways to youth antisocial behavior. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 928–937.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, K. C., Epstein, J. N., Hinshaw, S. P., Conners, C. K., Klaric, J., Abikoff, H. B., et al. (2000). Parenting and family stress treatment outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an empirical analysis in the MTA study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 543–533.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., & Brzustowicz, L. M. (2006). MAOA and the “cycle of violence”: childhood abuse and neglect, MAO-A genotype, and the risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 684–689.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336–1346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Brookes, K., Chen, C. K., Huang, Y. S., Wu, Y., & Asherson, P. (2007). Association study between the monoamine oxidase A gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Taiwanese samples. BMC Psychiatry, 7, 7–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, J., Chen, Y., Lai, J., Dang, Y., Yan, C., Xu, M., et al. (2010). Dopamine D3 receptor regulates basal but not amphetamine-induced changes in pain sensitivity in mice. Neuroscience Letters, 477, 134–137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1563, USA

    James J. Li & Steve S. Lee

Authors
  1. James J. Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steve S. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steve S. Lee.

Additional information

This work was partially supported by the Consortium of Neuropsychiatric Phenomics (CNP) (NIH Roadmap for Medical Research grant UL1-DE019580, RL1DA024853) and NIH Grant 1R03AA020186-01 to Steve S. Lee.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Li, J.J., Lee, S.S. Association of Positive and Negative Parenting Behavior with Childhood ADHD: Interactions with Offspring Monoamine Oxidase A (MAO-A) Genotype. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40, 165–175 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9553-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9553-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation