Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Explicit- and Implicit Bullying Attitudes in Relation to Bullying Behavior

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The main aim of this study was to examine whether an assessment of implicit bullying attitudes could add to the prediction of bullying behavior after controlling for explicit bullying attitudes. Primary school children (112 boys and 125 girls, M age = 11 years, 5 months) completed two newly developed measures of implicit bullying attitudes (a general Implicit Association Test on bullying and a movie-primed specific IAT on bullying), an explicit bullying attitude measure, and self reported, peer reported, and teacher rated bullying behavior. While explicit bullying attitudes predicted bullying behavior, implicit attitudes did not. However, a significant interaction between implicit and explicit bullying attitudes indicated that in children with relatively positive explicit attitudes, implicit bullying attitudes were important predictors of bullying behavior. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreou, E., Vlachoub, A., & Didaskaloub, E. (2005). The roles of self-efficacy, peer interactions and attitudes in bully-victim incidents. Implications for intervention policy-practices. School Psychology International, 26, 545–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mucke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, K. S. (2007). Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? Developmental Review, 27, 90–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blümke, M., & Zumbach, J. (2007). Implicit and explicit measures in analyzing aggression of computer gamers. In G. Steffgen & M. Gollwitzer (Eds.), Emotions and aggressive behavior (pp. 37–56). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosson, J. K., Swarm, W. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631–643.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., Trueman, M., & Flemington, I. (2002). Associations between secondary school pupils’ definitions of bullying, attitudes towards bullying, and tendencies to engage in bullying: Age and sex differences. Educational Studies, 28, 352–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression. Correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences, 3rd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information- processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800–814.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, K. (1990). The interplay of affect and cognition in attitude formation and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 200–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, K., & von Hippel, W. (1995). Hearts and minds: The priority of affective versus cognitive factors in person perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 996–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fabrigar, L. R., & Petty, R. E. (1999). The role of the affective and cognitive bases of attitudes in susceptibility to affectively and cognitively based persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 363–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston: Row, Peterson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). Associative and propositional in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glasman, L. R., & Albarracin, D. (2006). Forming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Psychology Bulletin, 132, 778–822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, M., Banse, R., Eisenbach, K., & Naumann, A. (2007). Effectiveness of the Vienna Social Competence Training on explicit and implicit aggression evidence from an aggressiveness-IAT. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 150–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Siriam, N. (2006). Consequential validity of the implicit association test: Comment on Blanton and Jaccard. American Psychologist, 61, 56–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grenard, J. L., Ames, S. L., Wiers, R. W., Thush, C., Sussman, S., & Stacy, A. W. (2008). Working memory capacity moderates the predictive effects of drug-related assocations on substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22, 426–432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1369–1385.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., Castelli, L., & Schmitt, M. (2008). Implicit and explicit attitudes and interracial interaction: The moderating role of situationally available control resources. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11, 69–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houben, K., & Wiers, R. W. (2007). Personalizing the alcohol-IAT with individualized stimuli: Relationship with drinking behaviour and drinking-related problems. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2852–2864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R., & Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children’s normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 408–419.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697–720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menesini, E., Eslea, M., Smith, P. K., Genta, M. L., Giannetti, E., Fonzi, A., et al. (1997). Cross-national comparison of children’s attitudes towards bully/victim problems in school. Aggressive Behavior, 23, 245–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menesini, E., Codecasa, E., Benelli, B., & Cowie, H. (2003). Enhancing children’s responsibility to take action against bullying: Evaluation of a befriending intervention in Italian middle schools. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J. P., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Contextual variations in implicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 455–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1983). Social impact and social preference as determinants of children’s peer group status. Developmental Psychology, 19, 856–867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 134, 565–584.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., & Hansen, J. J. (2008). Personalizing the implicit association test increases explicit evaluation of target concepts. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 24, 226–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, R. M., Fite, P. J., Nowlin, P. R., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Children’s beliefs about substance use: An examination of age differences in implicit and explicit cognitive precursors of substance use initiation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21, 525–533.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the implicit association test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653–667.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1989). The Olweus Bully/victim questionnaire. Bergen: Mimeo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1999). In P. K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, P. Slee (eds.), The nature of school bullying: A cross-national perspective (pp. 7–27). New York: Routledge.

  • Perugini, M., & Prestwich, A. (2007). The gatekeeper: Individual differences are key in the chain from perception to behavior. European Journal of Personality, 21, 303–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintado, I. (2007). Perceptions of school climate and bullying in middle schools. Dissertation-Abstracts-International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68, 244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K. (2002). New perspectives on bullying. London: Jessica Kingsley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K. (2004). Addressing bullying in schools. Theoretical perspectives and their implications. School Psychology International, 25, 287–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roefs, A., Stapert, D., Isabella, L. A. S., Wolters, G., Wojciechowski, F., & Jansen, A. (2005). Early associations with food in anorexia nervosa patients and obese people assessed in the affective priming paradigm. Eating Behaviors, 6, 151–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rustad, R. A., Small, J. E., Jobes, D. A., Safer, M. A., & Peterson, R. J. (2003). The impact of rock videos and music with suicidal content on thoughts and attitudes about suicide. Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 33, 120–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., & Voeten, M. (2004). Connections between attitudes, group norms, and behaviour in bullying situations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 246–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenmakers, T., Wiers, R. W., & Field, M. (2008). Effects of a low dose of alcohol on cognitive biases and craving in heavy drinkers. Psychopharmacology, 197, 169–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scholte, R. H. J., de Kemp, R. A. T., Haselager, G. J. M., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2007). Longitudinal stability in bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 217–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schröder-Abé, M., Rudolph, A., Wiesner, A., & Schütz, A. (2007a). High implicit self-esteem is not necessarily advantageous: Discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-esteem and their relationship with anger expression and psychological health. European Journal of Personality, 21, 319–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schröder-Abé, M., Rudolph, A., Wiesner, A., & Schütz, A. (2007b). Self-esteem discrepancies and defensive reactions to social feedback. International Journal of Psychology, 42, 174–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., Gonsalkorale, K., Hugenberg, K., Allen, T. J., & Groom, C. J. (2008). The self-regulation of automatic associations and behavioral impulses. Psychology Review, 115, 314–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sijtsema, J. J., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., & Salmivalli, C. (2009). Empirical test of bullies’ status goals: Assessing direct goals, aggression, and prestige. Aggressive Behavior, 35, 57–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E., & DeCoster, J. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 108–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. D., Schneider, B. H., Smith, P. K., & Ananiadou, K. (2004). The effectiveness of whole-school anti-bullying programs: A synthesis of evaluation research. School Psychology Review, 33, 547–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solberg, M. E., & Olweus, D. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 239–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, V., Van Oost, P., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2000). The effects of an anti-bullying intervention programmes on peers’ attitudes and behaviour. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 21–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, K. (2000). The anti-bullying handbook. Oxford: OUP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thissen, M., & Bendermacher, N. (1996). Kunst SocStat: Sociometric status. Nijmegen: University of Nijmegen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thush, C., Wiers, R. W., Ames, S. L., Grenard, J. L., Sussman, S., & Stacy, A. W. (2008). Interactions between implicit and explicit cognition and working memory capacity in the prediction of alcohol use in at-risk adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 94, 116–124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vreeman, R. C., & Carroll, A. E. (2007). A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 78–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiers, R. W., Beckers, L., Houben, K., & Hofmann, W. (2009). A short fuse after alcohol: Implicit power associations predict aggressiveness after alcohol consumption in young heavy drinkers with limited executive control. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 93, 300–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We want to thank Daan Creemers for his assistance with the data collection, Rinus Voeten for his assistance with data analysis, and Giovanni ten Brink for his assistance with technical realization of the IAT.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Developmental Psychology, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80140, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Anne A. J. van Goethem

  2. Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Ron H. J. Scholte

  3. Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Reinout W. Wiers

Authors
  1. Anne A. J. van Goethem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ron H. J. Scholte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Reinout W. Wiers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anne A. J. van Goethem.

Additional information

During the research project on implicit and explicit bullying attitudes all authors were working at the Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

van Goethem, A.A.J., Scholte, R.H.J. & Wiers, R.W. Explicit- and Implicit Bullying Attitudes in Relation to Bullying Behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 38, 829–842 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9405-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9405-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation