Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Risk Factors for Learning-Related Behavior Problems at 24 Months of Age: Population-Based Estimates

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We used a large sample of singleton children to estimate the effects of socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity, gender, additional socio-demographics, gestational and birth factors, and parenting on children’s risk for learning-related behavior problems at 24 months of age. We investigated to what extent these factors increased a child’s risk of displaying inattention, a lack of task persistence, disinterest, non-cooperation, or frustration as he or she completed a series of cognitive and physical tasks with a non-caregiver. Results indicated that boys are about twice as likely as girls to display learning-related behavior problems. Children from lower SES households are about twice as likely as those from high SES households to display such behavior problems, which is largely attributable to the effects of having a mother with a low educational level. Statistically controlling for these factors, we found consistently significant patterns of elevated learning-related behavior problems for some Asian and Native American children. Results for African-American children were mixed. Hispanic children did not have consistently elevated risks of problem behaviors. Only small portions of these effects are explained by variation in the children’s gestational or birth characteristics. A significant portion, but still less than half of the socio-demographic effects are attributable to measured features of the children’s parenting. This study helps provide population-based estimates of children’s risk for learning-related behavior problems while at an age when early interventions are most effective.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We derived this sub-sample of 5,522 from the 8,944 children who participated in the ECLS-B’s 24 months data collection, 7,222 of whom were singletons with complete data from their birth certificates, as well as complete assessment score data. Of these 7,222 children, 5,522 had complete data on the factors measured by the HOME score. We excluded non-singletons from our analyses because these children often lag substantially behind singletons in their cognitive abilities for a 2 or 3 year time period (e.g., Rutter et al. 2003). Descriptive statistics indicated that this sub-sample of 5,522 children were very similar in their socio-demographics to the full sample of 8,944 children participating in the ECLS-B at 24 months. Descriptive statistics of all the study’s variables for the analytical sample are available by contacting the study’s first author.

  2. For an extensive detailing of the training and reliability procedures used by NCES to prepare field staff to collect this and other behavioral data, see Andreassen and Fletcher (2007), which is publicly available at http://nces.ed.gov/ECLS/birth.

  3. We thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting this by-component analysis.

References

  • Alexander, K. L., Entwsle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (1993). First grade classroom behaviors: its short- and long-term consequences for school performance. Child Development, 64, 801–814. doi:10.2307/1131219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andreassen, C., & Fletcher, P. (2007). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort psychometric report for the 2-year data collection (NCES 2007-084). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, N. (1993). Bayley Scales of infant development (2nd ed.). New York: The Psychological Corporation, Harcort Brace and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhatara, V., Loudenberg, R., & Ellis, R. (2006). Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 515–522. doi:10.1177/1087054705283880.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C. S., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Haynes, O. M. (2003). The Hollingshead four-factor index of social status and the socioeconomic index of occupations. In M. H. Bornstein, & R. H. Bradley (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 29–81). Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady-Smith, C., O’Brien, C., Berlin, L., & Ware, A. (1999). Early head start research and evaluation project 24-month child–parent interaction rating scales for the 3-bag assessment. Unpublished manuscript. New York: Center for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Rouse, C. E., & McLanahan, S. (2007). Racial and ethnic gaps in school readiness. In R. C. Pianta, M. J. Cox, & K. L. Snow (Eds.), School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability (pp. 283–306). Baltimore, MD: Brooks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buck, K. R. (1997). A comparison of three measures of social/emotional development of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Unpublished dissertation. University of Alabama.

  • Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). The HOME inventory and family demographics. Developmental Psychology, 20, 315–320. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.20.2.315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A. (2002). Self-regulatory processes in early personality development: A multilevel approach to the study of childhood social withdrawal and aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 477–498. doi:10.1017/S095457940200305X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., & Stauffenberg, C. V. (2007). Child characteristics and family processes that predict behavioral readiness. In A. Booth, & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Disparities in school readiness: How families contribute to transitions to school. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K., Elder, G., Lorenz, F., Simons, R., & Whitbeck, L. (1992). A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63, 526–541. doi:10.2307/1131344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R., Ge, X., Elder, G., Lorenz, F., & Simons, R. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561. doi:10.2307/1131401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). Family poverty, welfare reform, and child development. Child Development, 71, 188–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. A. (2005). Can family socioeconomic resources account for racial and ethnic test score gaps? The Future of Children, 15, 35–54. doi:10.1353/foc.2005.0004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428–1446. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H., & Angold, A. (2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47, 313–337. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01618.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Essex, M. J., Kraemer, H. C., Armstrong, J. M., Boyce, W. T., Goldsmith, H. H., Klein, M. H., et al. (2006). Exploring risk factors for the emergence of children’s mental health problems. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1246–1256. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.11.1246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P. (2005). The development of offending antisocial behaviour from childhood: key findings from the Cambridge study in delinquent development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 36, 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, L. C., Bogart, L. M., Vranceanu, A. M., & Matthews, K. M. (2005). Socioeconomic status, resources, psychosocial experiences, and emotional responses: a test of the reserve capacity model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 386–399. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goyette, K., & Xie, Y. (1999). Educational expectations of Asian American youth: determinants and ethnic differences. Sociology of Education, 72, 22–36. doi:10.2307/2673184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, D., Reavis, R., Keane, , & Calkins, S. (2007). The role of emotional regulation in children’s academic success. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 3–19. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2006.09.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1999). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, A. L., Degnan, K. A., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2006). Profiles of externalizing behavioral problems for boys and girls across preschool: the roles of emotion regulation and inattention. Developmental Psychology, 42, 913–928. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.913.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hillemeier, M. M., Farkas, G., Morgan, P. L., Martin, M. A., & Maczuga, S. (2008). Disparities in the prevalence of cognitive delay: How early do they appear? Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, in press.

  • Holmes, S. E., Slaughter, J. R., & Kashani, J. (2001). Risk factors in childhood that lead to the development of conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31, 183–193. doi:10.1023/A:1026425304480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2007). Does executive function matter for preschoolers’ problem behaviors? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Retrieved January 8, 2008, from http://www.springerlink.com/content/104756/

  • Hultman, C. M., Torrang, A., Tuvblad, C., Cnattingius, S., Larsson, J. O., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). Birth weight and attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms in childhood and early adolescence: a prospective Swedish twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 370–377. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000246059.62706.22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. S. (2003). Starting at the beginning: exploring the etiology of antisocial behavior in the first years of life. In B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct order and juvenile delinquency (pp. 153–181). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., Birch, S. H., & Buhs, E. S. (1999). Children’s social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: related spheres of influence? Child Development, 58, 1168–1189. doi:10.2307/1130613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L. J. (2006). Growth in temperament and parenting as predictors of adjustment during children’s transition to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 819–832. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.819.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L. J., & Kovacs, E. A. (2005). Bidirectional associations between temperament and parenting and the prediction of adjustment problems in middle childhood. Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 21–38. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2004.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magnuson, K. A., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Early childhood care and education: effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. The Future of Children, 15, 169–196. doi:10.1353/foc.2005.0005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2003). The emergence of learning-related social skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 206–224. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(03)00026-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Morrison, F. J., & Holmes, D. L. (2000). Children at risk for early academic problems: the role of learning-related social skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 307–329. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(00)00069-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end of elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21, 471–490. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.09.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2003). Social functioning in first grade: associations with earlier home and child care predictors and with current classroom experiences. Child Development, 74, 1639–1662. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00629.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Childcare Research Network. (2005). Predicting individual differences in attention, memory, and planning in first graders from experiences at home, child care, and school. Developmental Psychology, 41, 99–114. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noland, J. S., Singer, L. T., Short, E. J., Minnes, S., Arendt, R. E., Kirchner, H. L., et al. (2005). Prenatal drug exposure and selective attention in preschoolers. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 429–438. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2005.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nord, C., Edwards, B., Andreassen, C., Green, J. L., & Wallner-Allen, K. (2006). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), user’s manual for the ECLS-B longitudinal 9-Month-2-year data file and electronic codebook (NCES 2006-046). Washington DC: National Center for Educational Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children’s behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years: report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502–508. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.6.502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, S. L., Ceballo, R., & Park, C. (2002). Early problem behavior among children from low-income, mother-headed families: multiple risk perspective. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 419–430.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R. (2002). The early development of coercive family processes. In J. Reid, G. R. Patterson, & J. Snyder (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention (pp. 25–44). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., & Yoerger, K. (2002). A developmental model for early- and late-onset delinquency. In J. B. Reid, G. R. Patterson, & J. Snyder (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention (pp. 147–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Qi, C. H., & Kaiser, A. P. (2003). Behavior problems of preschool children from low-income families: review of the literature. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23, 188–216. doi:10.1177/02711214030230040201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raikes, H. A., Robinson, J. L., Bradley, R. H., Raikes, H. H., & Ayoub, C. C. (2007). Developmental trends in self-regulation among low-income toddlers. Social Development, 16, 128–149. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00375.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raver, C. C., Gershoff, E. T., & Aber, J. L. (2007). Testing equivalence of mediating models of income, parenting, and school readiness for white, black, and Hispanic children in a national sample. Child Development, 78, 96–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, A., & Bohlin, G. (2005). Are maternal smoking and stress during pregnancy related to ADHD symptoms in children? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 246–254. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00359.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Thorpe, K., Greenwood, R., Northstone, K., & Golding, J. (2003). Twins as a natural experiment to study the causes of mild language delay: I: design; twin-singleton differences in language, and obstetric risks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 44, 326–341. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schonberg, M. A., & Shaw, D. S. (2007). Risk factors for boys’ conduct problems in poor and lower-middle-class neighborhoods. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 759–772. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9125-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, G. H. S., Marquis, J., Powers, L., Blanchard, L., DiVenere, N., Santelli, B., et al. (1999). A multi-site evaluation of parent-to-parent programs for parents of children with disabilities. Journal of Early Intervention, 22, 217–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smeekens, S., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., & van Bakel, H. J. A. (2007). Multiple determinants of externalizing behavior in 5-year-olds: a longitudinal model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 347–361. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9095-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. E., Landry, S. H., & Swank, P. R. (2006). The role of early maternal responsiveness in supporting school-aged cognitive development for children who vary in birth status. Pediatrics, 117, 1608–1617. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tully, L. A., Arseneault, L., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Morgan, I. (2004). Does maternal warmth moderate the effects of birth weight on twins’ attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and low IQ? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 218–226. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.2.218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, J. B., & Bentler, P. M. (2004). Structural equation modeling. In M. Hardy, & A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook of data analysis (pp. 431–458). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Special Education, The Pennsylvania State University, 211 CEDAR Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Paul L. Morgan

  2. Department of Education, University of California, Irvine, 2001 Berkeley Place, Irvine, CA, 92697-5500, USA

    George Farkas

  3. Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State University, 504S Ford Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Marianne M. Hillemeier

  4. Population Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, 814 Oswald Tower, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Steven Maczuga

Authors
  1. Paul L. Morgan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. George Farkas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marianne M. Hillemeier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Steven Maczuga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul L. Morgan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M.M. et al. Risk Factors for Learning-Related Behavior Problems at 24 Months of Age: Population-Based Estimates. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 401–413 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9279-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9279-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation