Skip to main content

Asymmetric barriers in atmospheric politics of transboundary air pollution: a case of particulate matter (PM) cooperation between China and South Korea

International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics volume 20, pages 123–140 (2020)Cite this article

Abstract

Existing studies have argued that regional cooperation is urgent in order to tackle transboundary air pollution. However, few studies have operationalized atmospheric cooperation steps and theorized the underlying logic of asymmetry as a barrier to further cooperation. Given that air quality degradation and its impact on neighboring countries have worsened around the world, it is imperative to identify a framework with which to analyze the degree of transboundary cooperation. This study aims to provide a general explanation of barriers to transboundary air pollution cooperation and test the explanation empirically through a case study of China and South Korea. Our findings suggest that asymmetric barriers—in state capacity, economic interests, domestic pressures, and international pressure—impede the process of cooperation in atmospheric politics. This systematic analysis points to policy suggestions including the improvement of regional epistemic community, economic co-benefits, and multilateral institution that enhance the chances of reducing transboundary air pollution.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

Notes

  1. As explained below, our analysis focuses on the bilateral case rather than the multilateral case, which needs more theoretical sophistication.

  2. Note that financial support/subsidy transfer from the receiving country to the transferring country is another aspect of this economic-interest dimension. In fact, the case of China–South Korea experienced this economic interaction at a very low scale, which does not qualify as a game-changer due to the difference in size between the two countries and the sheer volume of air pollution in mainland China. If the receiving end is much larger economically and more capable of subsidizing the transferring end, this might be a critical factor in the game. This policy suggestion is applicable to the case of North Korea (source) and South Korea (receptor).

  3. The degree of domestic audience pressure depends on multiple factors (variables) such as the nature of the political regime (democratic or authoritarian), the level of economic development (poor, developing, or developed), and scientific information on the various features of the air pollution (transboundary, domestic-generated, atmospheric dynamics, impact on quality of life, etc.), which are beyond the scope of this paper.

  4. Note that in addition to the interviews conducted during the fieldwork, some interviews were conducted via email and phone to obtain more diverse interviewees in China and South Korea.

  5. July 3, 2014, Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea and the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Cooperation; 2016 MOU for Collaborative Research Team on Air Quality of Korea and China.

  6. Interviews with South Korean experts, January 12, August 23, 2019; officials January 13, 2019.

  7. Despite a series of research efforts inside and outside of China, we could not find any data that reported the scientific evaluation of transboundary air pollution between China and South Korea. See Kim and Kim (2018).

  8. Hangyoreh Newspaper, June 19, 2018. China, Japan, and Korea’s collaborative publication of PM from China broken down. (http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/environment/849781.html

  9. Interview with Chinese expert, January 11, 2019; Chinese official, January 20, 2019. Cho (2019).

  10. Data retrieved from the World Bank Dataset (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD) and SIPRI dataset (https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex).

  11. Data retrieved from the Korea Customs dataset (https://unipass.customs.go.kr:38030/ets/).

  12. Interviews with South Korean officials and experts, January 12, 2019; Chinese experts and journalist, January 8, 11, and 25, 2019.

  13. Interviews with Chinese experts and officials, January 8, 11, 20 and 25, 2019.

  14. Interviews with Chinese experts and officials, January 8, 11, 20 and 25, 2019.

  15. Interview with South Korean experts, January 13, 2019.

  16. By contrast, North Korea is a closed authoritarian state with an underdeveloped economy and little scientific knowledge. North Korea is not demanding that China settle this transboundary PM issue.

  17. Interviews with Chinese experts, January 8 and 25, 2019.

  18. Interviews with Chinese experts, November 16, 2018; January 9, 11, 20 and 25.

  19. Joint research projects (of China, Japan, and South Korea) for Long-range transboundary air pollutants in Northeast Asia recently announced the summary report of 4th stage (regarding PM) LTP project (Nov. 20, 2019). LTP (2019). While it was the first collaborative research outcome announcement, detailed contents on the influence of sources (Chinese cities) on receptors (South Korean cities) between China and South Korea estimates are not identical. In addition, transports of PM during high level seasons (from December to March) were not included in the report (Kim 2019).

  20. Interviews with Chinese experts, November 16, 2018; January 9, 11, and 17, 2019.

  21. Interviews with a South Korean expert, January 21, 2019.

  22. Interviews with Chinese experts, January 11, 2019; Chinese officials, January 20, 2019; South Korean experts, January 12, May 21, 2019.

  23. It is analogous to the certified emissions reduction issue in climate-change debate, because South Korea produced a massive amount of PM in the last several decades without being recognized as a source-transferor to its neighboring countries, but now blames China for generating and transferring PM to it.

  24. Hypothetically, if China was downstream and South Korea was upstream, there would be a much lower level of conflict revolving around the transboundary PM. Instead, China might be in South Korea’s position and be demanding a resolution to the issue. If so, South Korea would be under severe pressure to cooperate with its more powerful neighbor, and the asymmetric logic would run the opposite way, accelerating the cooperation process. From a different perspective, the primary receptors victimized by the massive PM transfer from China would be the countries of Central Asia and Southeast Asia.

References

  • Ahlers, A. L., & Shen, Y. (2017). Breathe easy? Local nuances of authoritarian environmentalism in China’s battle against air pollution. The China Quarterly,234, 299–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beeson, M. (2015). Authoritarian environmentalism and China. In T. Gabrielson, C. Hall, J. M. Meyer, & D. Schlosberg (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of environmental political theory (pp. 520–532). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2017). 2017 nian 3 yue 21 ri waijiaobu fayanren huanchunying zhuchi lixing jizhehui. Ministry of Foreign Affairs Spokesperson Hua Chunying Conducts a Press Conference, March 21, 2017. Retrieved March 21, 2018, from http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/fyrbt_673021/jzhsl_673025/t1447426.shtml.

  • Chinese State Council. (2015). Shengtai Wenming Tizhi Gaige Zongti Fangan. General Scheme for the Reform of the Ecological Civilization System. Beijing. Retrieved March 21, 2019, from http://www.gov.cn/guowuyuan/2015-09/21/content_2936327.htm.

  • Cho, A. (2019). Minister of Environment, Myoungrae Cho say, “Chinese Ministry of Ecology and Environment acknowledges the PM from China” Hankook Ilbo 2019. 3. 7. Retrieved March 21, 2019, from https://www.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/201903071577354424?did=DA&dtype=&dtypecode=&prnewsid=.

  • Daoudy, M. (2009). Asymmetric power: Negotiating water in the Euphrates and Tigris. International Negotiation,14(2), 361–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinar, S. (2009). Power asymmetry and negotiations in international river basins. International Negotiation,14(2), 329–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, L. (2017). Wu mai zeren, huanjing waijiao yu zhongrihan hezuo. Responsibility for PM, environmental diplomacy and China–South Korea cooperation. Dangdaihanguo. Contemporary Korea,2, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dong, X. (2018) Hanguo de wumai laizi Zhongguo? Tamen ziji de! [South Korea’s PM Comes from China? It Comes from Itself!] Beijingqingnianbao. Beijing Youth Daily. 28 December. Retrieved December 6, 2019, from http://www.sohu.com/a/285136718_255783.

  • Fraenkel, A. A. (1989). The convention on long-range transboundary air pollution: meeting the challenge of international cooperation. Harvard International Law Journal,30(2), 447–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gu, Y., & Yim, S. H. L. (2016). The air quality and health impacts of domestic trans-boundary pollution in various regions of China. Environment International,97, 117–124.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haas, P. M. (1990). Saving the mediterranean: The politics of international environmental cooperation. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, H. (2017). China, an upstream Hegemon: A destabilizer for the Governance of the Mekong River? Pacific Focus,32(1), 30–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, P., & Lee, T. (2017). Compliance with climate change agreements: The constraints of consumption. International Environmental Agreement,17(6), 779–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huanqiushibao. (2017). Hanguoren yin shouer wumai yao Beijing peichang jingshen sunshi, duicini zenmekan?. How Do You Think about South Korean Demanded Beijing Reparation in Cash for Their Mental Damage by PMs? Retrieved 6 April, 2018, from http://surveyx.huanqiu.com/survey/survey_hq/68.

  • Hussein, H., & Grandi, M. (2017). Dynamic political contexts and power asymmetries: the cases of the Blue Nile and the Yarmouk Rivers. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,17(6), 795–814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keohane, R. O., & Joseph, N. (2012). Power and interdependence (4th ed.). Boston: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, I. (2007). Environmental cooperation of Northeast Asia: Transboundary air pollution. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific,7(3), 439–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, I. (2014). Messages from a middle power: participation by the Republic of Korea in regional environmental cooperation on transboundary air pollution issues. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,14(2), 147–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. (2018). “Sijinping ege masuku batdawara. jaenangup misemeonjie gyukyang [Make Xi Jinping pay for dust masks. Soaring anger caused by disastrous particulate matter [PM]]” Newsis. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from http://www.newsis.com/view/?id=NISX20180326_0000262407.

  • Kim, H. (2019). “32% of PM comes from China. China first admitted” Chosun Ilbo. Retrieved December 6, 2019, from https://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2019/11/21/2019112100269.html.

  • Kim, S., & Kim, D. (2018). Analysis of the recognition differences and cooperation between Korea and China on the transboundary environmental pollution issues: Focusing on peaceful conflict resolution (in Korean). The Journal of Peace Studies,19(1), 253–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., Kim, J., Choi, M., Eck, T. F., Hong, J., Lim, H., et al. (2019). Analysis of long-range transboundary transport (LRTT) effect on Korean aerosol pollution during the KORUS-AQ campaign. Atmospheric Environment,204, 53–67.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Q., & Wang, Q. (2017). “Zhongrihan kuajie daqiwuranzhong de zhongguo zeren shibie yanjiu [Study on China’s Responsibility in the China-Japan-South Korea Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution] Dongbeiyaruntan [Northeast Asia Forum], 6, 7–91.

  • LTP. (2019). Summary Report of the 4th stage (2013–2017) LPT project. National Institute of Environmental Research: Joint research project for long-range transboundary air pollutants in Northeast Asia. Retrieved November 21, 2019 from https://nier.go.kr/NIER/cop/bbs/selectNoLoginBoardArticle.do?menuNo=14001&bbsId=BBSMSTR_000000000012&nttId=25825&Command=READ.

  • Luterbacher, U., & Sprinz, D. F. (Eds.). (2001). International relations and global climate change. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Min, B. (2001). Regional cooperation for control of transboundary air pollution in East Asia. Journal of Asian Economics,12(1), 137–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, Ronald B. (2010). International politics and the environment. California: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoE. (1993). Agreement on environmental cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the People’s Republic of China, ROK-China, Oct. 28, 1993. National Archives of Korea. http://www.archives.go.kr/next/search/listSubjectDescription.do?id=002962.

  • MoE. (2003). Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea and the State Environmental Protection Administration of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Cooperation, ROK-China, July. 8, 2003 Ministry of Environment. http://webbook.me.go.kr/DLi-File/091/025/003/5631039.pdf.

  • MoE. (2005). Arrangement between the Ministry of the Environment of the Republic of Korea and the State Environmental Protection Administration of the People’s Republic of China on ground monitoring and information exchange for dust and sand storms, ROK-China, June. 7, 2005. Ministry of Environment. http://webbook.me.go.kr/DLi-File/091/025/003/5631039.pdf.

  • Nielsen, C. P., & Ho, M. S. (2013). Clearer skies over China: Reconciling air quality, climate, and economic goals. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • NIER (National Institute of Environmental Research). (2017). KORUS-AQ Rapid Science Synthesis Report. Incheon: NIER.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurhidayah, L., Shawkat, A., & Lipman, Z. (2015). The influence of international law upon ASEAN approaches in addressing transboundary haze pollution in Southeast Asia. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs,37(2), 183–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oh, J.H. (2019) Summakhi Han Misemunji, Junge halmaleun hara [Suffocated South Korea Say Its Piece to China]. Seoul Economic Daily Page 1, 4, 5 (15 January).

  • Oh, H., Ho, C., Kim, J., Chen, D., Lee, S., Choi, Y., et al. (2015). Long-range transport of air pollutants originating in China: A possible major cause of multi-day high-PM10 episodes during cold season in Seoul, Korea. Atmospheric Environment,109, 23–30.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill, K. (2009). The environment and international relations. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S.M. (2019). 2020 yesan: misaemunji haegyeole sajo ssenda… muknunmul gwanlido ganghwa [2020 Budget: Spending 4 Trillion Korean Won to Settle the PM Pollution and Enforcing the Tap Water Management] Yeonhapnews (29 August). Retrieved December 3, 2019, from https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190828157800004.

  • Perrin, S., & Bernauer, T. (2010). International regime formation revisited: Explaining ratification behaviour with respect to long-range transboundary air pollution agreements in Europe. European Union Politics,11(3), 405–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • President Office. (2018). Citizen Petition on protest against particulate matter from China. Retrieved April 24, 2018 from http://www1.president.go.kr/petitions/174292.

  • Putnam, R. (1988). Diplomacy and domestic politics: The logic of two-level game. International Organization,42(3), 427–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roelofs, Jeffrey. (1993). United States-Canada air quality agreement: A framework for addressing transboundary air pollution problems. Cornell International Law Journal,26(2), 421–454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selin, H., & Van Deveer, S. (2003). Mapping institutional linkages in European air pollution politics. Global Environmental Politics,3(3), 14–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shim, C. (2017). Policy measures for mitigating fine particle pollution in Korea and suggestions for expediting international dialogue in East Asia. JICA-RI Working Paper, pp. 1–31.

  • Shin, G., Izatt, H., & Moon, R. J. (2016). Asymmetry of power and attention in alliance politics: The US–Republic of Korea case. Australian Journal of International Affairs,70(3), 1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephen, P. (2009). Asymmetry and selectivity: What happens in international law when the world changes. Chicago Journal of International Law,10(1), 91–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilt, B. (2019). Review: China’s air pollution crisis: Science and policy perspectives. Environmental Science & Policy,92, 275–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuinstra, W., Hordijk, L., & Kroeze, C. (2006). Moving boundaries in transboundary air pollution co-production of science and policy under the convention on long range transboundary air pollution. Global Environmental Change,16, 349–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNESCAP. (2018). Review of programme planning and implementation transboundary air pollution in North-East Asia: Twenty-second Senior Officials Meeting (SOM) of NEASPEC.

  • Warner, J., & Zawahri, N. (2012). Hegemony and asymmetry: Multiple-chessboard games on transboundary rivers. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,12, 215–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Womack, B. (2015). Asymmetry and international relationships. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, G. (2018). Misemeonji wayi jeonjaeng junggukeu sunggonghanunde [China succeeds in war against PMs] Sisain. Retrieved Februrary 7, 2018, from https://www.sisain.co.kr/?mod=news&act=articleView&idxno=31197.

  • Yarime, M., & Li, A. (2018). Facilitating international cooperation on air pollution in East Asia: Fragmentation of the epistemic communities. Global Policy,9(3), 35–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon, E. (2007). Cooperation for transboundary pollution in Northeast Asia: Non-binding agreements and regional countries’ policy interests. Pacific Focus,22(2), 77–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhen, L. (2018). Beijing meets national air pollution standard for first time. South China morning post. Retrieved Februrary 7, 2018, from https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2132406/beijing-meets-national-air-pollutant-standardfirst-time.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political Science and International Studies, Yonsei University, Yonsei-Ro 50, Seodaemun Gu, Seoul, Korea

    Taedong Lee & Wooyeal Paik

Authors
  1. Taedong Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Wooyeal Paik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taedong Lee.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix: List of interviewees

Appendix: List of interviewees

Interviews were conducted in a face-to-face manner with semi-structured questions concerning the causes or drivers of international cooperation over transboundary air pollution. Interviewees agreed to be anonymously interviewed. All interviews lasted between 30 min and 1 h or via email.

CodeBackgroundDate
1Professor at a University in Northeast China (International Relations)January 8, 11 and 20, 2019
2Researcher at a University in South Korea (China Studies, China-South Korea Relations)November 16, 2018; January 25, 2019
3Journalist from a Newspaper in BeijingJanuary 25, 2019
4Local government official from Tianjin (External Affairs)January 25, 2019
5Chinese government official from the Ministry of Commerce January 24, 2019
6Scholar from a University in BeijingJanuary 26, 2019
7Chinese scholar from a University in Seoul January 9 and 17, 2019
8Local government official from Jilin (Environmental Affairs)January 20, 2019
9Professor of a University in Jilin Province (China Studies, China-South Korea Relations)January 20, 2019
10South Korean official (Foreign affairs)May 9, 2019
11Researcher at Hanyang University, South Korea (Environmental Politics)August 23, 2019
12Professor from Korea University (Energy and Environmental Politics)August 12, 2019
13Professor from Kwangwoon University, South Korea (Environmental Politics)July 4, 2019
14Environmental activist from South KoreaJuly 4, 2019
15Professor of Atmospheric science at Yonsei UniversityMay 21, 2019
16Researcher from the Korea Environmental InstituteMay 21, 2019

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lee, T., Paik, W. Asymmetric barriers in atmospheric politics of transboundary air pollution: a case of particulate matter (PM) cooperation between China and South Korea. Int Environ Agreements 20, 123–140 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-019-09463-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-019-09463-6

Keywords

  • Atmospheric politics
  • Transboundary air pollution
  • Asymmetry
  • China and South Korea relations
  • Interactions between domestic politics and international politics