Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Clearing the muddy waters of shared watercourses governance: conceptualizing international River Basin Organizations

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Institutions that have been set up by riparian states to internationally govern shared water resources—international River Basin Organizations (RBOs)—play a key role in river basin governance. Despite an increased attention paid to RBOs in international relations and water scholarship, there has been little focus on defining and conceptualizing RBOs and, subsequently, on comprehensively identifying the RBOs that exist around the world. This has challenged research around RBOs in both methodological and theoretical ways. This paper aims to meet this challenge by offering a theoretically grounded definition of an international RBO and crafting a comprehensive list of international RBOs. We do so deductively, building from the larger neo-institutionalist research and international water resources governance literature. Our definition identifies three broad categories of constitutive elements: internationalization, institutionalization and governance. We apply this definition to potential cases to better identify the extent of RBOs around the world today and outline which cases qualify as RBOs and which cases fail to meet our constitutive criteria. This allows us to compile a comprehensive list of all existing international RBOs, including the identification of RBOs with specific characteristics. The article concludes by crafting an agenda for future research around RBOs that builds on this more complete understanding of RBOs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A great number of these freshwater treaties have been made available through the Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database (TFDD) at the Oregon State University (http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/database/index.html).

  2. Five cases were coded with the initial coding form by two coders and then the coding instructions were revised in cases where inter-coder reliability was low. After coding with the final coding form, approximately 25 % of the coded cases were selected randomly and coded by a second coder to check for inter-coder reliability. Inter-coder reliability was approximately 85 % based on the number of constitutive elements coded the same. In cases where we encountered contradictions in the secondary literature, we relied on our empirical findings from the treaties and website analysis.

  3. The vast majority of RBOs listed in Table 1 cover one river or lake basin. However, in eleven out of eighty-one instances (14 %), RBOs cover more than one river basin. Such institutionalized cooperation attempts do, nonetheless, qualify as RBOs but with the additional characteristic that the constitutive element “basin coverage” applies to more than one watercourse (these cases are highlighted in italics in Table 1).

References

  • Aguilar, G., & Iza, A. (2011). Governance of shared waters: Legal and institutional issues. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

  • Backer, E. (2007). The Mekong river commission: Does it work, and how does the Mekong basin’s geography influence its effectiveness. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 26(4), 31–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, M. (2007). Transboundary river floods: Vulnerability of continents, international river basins and countries. Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University.

  • Benvenisti, E. (2002). Sharing transboundary resources: International law and optimal resource use. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Berardo, R., & Gerlak, A. (2012). Conflict and cooperation along international rivers: Crafting a model of institutional effectiveness. Global Environmental Politics, 12(1), 101–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernauer, T. (1995). The effect of international environmental institutions: How we might learn more. International Organizations, 49(2), 351–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernauer, T. (1997). Managing international rivers. In O. Young (Ed.), Global environmental accords series. Global governance. Drawing insights from the environmental experience (pp. 155–195). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernauer, T. (2002). Explaining success and failure in international river management. Aquatic Sciences, 64, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biermann, F., & Bauer, F. (2004). Assessing the effectiveness of intergovernmental organizations in international environmental politics. Global Environmental Change, 14, 189–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brownlie, I. (2008). Principles of public international law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruch, C., Jansky, L., Nakayama, M., & Salewicz, A. (Eds.). (2005). Water resources management and policy. Public participation in the governance of international freshwater resources. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chenoweth, J., & Feitelson, E. (2001). Analysis of factors influencing data and information exchange in international river basins: Can such exchanges be used to build confidence in cooperative management? Water International, 26(4), 499–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conca, K. (2006). Governing water: Contentious transnational politics and global institution building. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cosgrove, W., & Rijsberman, F. (2000). World water vision: Making water everybody’s business. London: Earthscan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delli Priscoli, J., & Wolf, A. (2009). Managing and transforming water conflicts. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dinar, S. (2009). Scarcity and cooperation along international rivers. Global Environmental Politics, 9(1), 107–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dombrowsky, I. (2007). Conflict, cooperation and institutions in international water management: An economic analysis. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duffield, J. (2007). What are international institutions? International Studies Review, 9, 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durth, R. (1996). Grenzüberschreitende Umweltprobleme und regionale Integration: Zur politischen Ökonomie von Oberlauf-Unterlauf-Problemen an internationalen Flüssen. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Efinger, M., Rittberger, V., & Zürn, M. (1988). Internationale Regime in den Ost-West-Beziehungen. Frankfurt am Main: Haag & Herchen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elhance, A. (2000). Hydropolitics: Grounds for despair, reasons for hope. International Negotiation, 5, 201–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerlak, A. (2015). When regionalism works: An exploration of design element and contexts. In Paper prepared for the Eighth Biennial Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy, Sep 30–Oct 2, 2012. Aqaba, Jordan.

  • Gerlak, A., & Grant, K. (2009). The correlates of cooperative institutions for international rivers. In T. J. Volgy, Z. Šabič, P. Roter, & A. K. Gerlak (Eds.), Mapping the New world order (pp. 114–147). Oxford: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, N., Furlong, K., Hegre, H., Lacina, B., & Owen, T. (2006). Conflicts over shared rivers: Resource scarcity or fuzzy boundaries. Political Geography, 25, 361–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global Water Partnership (GWP). (2009). The handbook for integrated water resources management in basins. http://www.unwater.org/downloads/gwp_inbo%20handbook%20for%20iwrm%20in%20basins_eng.pdf. (Accessed October 28, 2013).

  • Global Water Partnership (GWP). (2012). The handbook for integrated water resources management in transboundary basins of rivers, lakes and aquifers. http://www.gwp.org/Global/About%20GWP/Publications/INBO-GWP%20Transboundary%20Handbook/MGIREB-UK-2012_Web.pdf. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • Goertz, G. (2006). Social science concepts: A user’s guide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J., Kahler, M., Keohane, R., & Slaughter, A. (2000). Introduction: Legalization and World politics. International Organization, 54(3), 385–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green Cross International. (2000). National sovereignty and international watercourses. Geneva: Green Cross International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, O. (1996). Environmental regimes. Effectiveness and implementation review. In J. Vogler & M. F. Imber (Eds.), The environment and international relations (pp. 196–214). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haftendorn, H. (2000). Water and international conflict. Third World Quarterly, 21(1), 51–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasenclever, A., Mayer, P., & Rittberger, V. (1997). Regimes as links between states: Three theoretical perspectives (p. 29). Tübingen: Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur internationalen Politik und Friedensforschung no.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, B. (2006). Key performance indicators of river basin organizations. Research paper 2006-VSP-01. US Army Corps of Engineers Visiting Scholar Program.

  • International Network of Basin Organizations. (INBO). (2013). Charter of organization and operation. http://www.inbo-news.org/inbo/organization/article/charter-of-organization-and. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • Jacobs, Inga. M. (2012). A community in the Orange: The development of a multi-level water governance framework in the Orange–Sengu river basin in South Africa. International Environmental Agreements, 12, 187–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jägerskog, A. (2003). Why states cooperate on shared water: The water negotiations in the Jordan Basin. Ph.D. thesis. http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/abst_docs/related_research/jagerskog2003.pdf. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • Keohane, R. (1988). International institutions: Two approaches. International Studies Quarterly, 32(4), 379–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kibaroğlu, A. (2008). The Role of epistemic communities in offering new cooperation frameworks in the Euphrates–Tigris rivers systems. Journal of International Affairs, 61(2), 183–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaphake, A., & Scheumann, W. (2006). Understanding transboundary water cooperation: Evidence form Africa. Working paper. Management in environmental planning no. 014/2006, Institute for Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, Technical University of Berlin.

  • Kliot, N., Shmueli, D., & Shamir, U. (2001). Development of institutional frameworks for the management of transboundary water resources. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, 1(3/4), 306–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koremenos, B. (2008). When, what and why do states choose to delegate. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71(4), 151–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koremenos, B., Lipson, C., & Snidal, D. (2001). The rational design of international instiuttions. International Organization, 55(4), 761–799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krasner, S. (1983). Structural causes and regime consequences: Regimes as intervening variables. In Krasner, S. (Ed.), International regimes (pp. 1–21). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

  • Lautze, J., de Silva, S., Giordano, M., & Sanford, L. (2011). Putting the cart before the horse: Water governance and IWRM. Natural Resources Forum, 35(1), 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lautze, J., Wegerich, K., Kazbekov, J., & Yakubov, M. (2012). International river basin organizations: Variation, options, insights. Water International, 38(1), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindemann, S. (2008). Understanding water regime formation—A research framework with lessons from Europe. Global Environmental Politics, 8(4), 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowi, M. (1993). Water and power: The politics of a scarce resource in the Jordan River Basin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Marty, F. (2001). Managing international rivers: Problems, politics, and institutions. Bern: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, P. (2006). Macht, Gerechtigkeit und Internationale Kooperation. Eine Regimeanalytische Untersuchung zur Internationalen Rohstoffpolitik. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrey, D., & Cook, S. (2012). Fostering institutional creativity at multiple levels: Towards facilitated institutional bricolage. Water Alternatives, 5(1), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milich, L., & Varady, R. (1999). Openness, sustainability, and public participation: New designs for transboundary river basin institutions. Journal of Environment and Development, 8(3), 258–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, R., & Bernauer, T. (2004). Beyond story-telling: Designing case study research in international environmental policy. In D. F. Sprinz & Y. Wolinsky-Nahmias (Eds.), Models, numbers and cases. Methods for studying international relations (pp. 81–106). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molle, F. (2009). River-basin planning and management: The social life of a concept. Geoforum, 40(3), 484–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mostert, E. (2003). Conflict and co-operation in international freshwater management: A global review. International Journal of River Basin Management, 1(3), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pahl-Wostl, C., Lebel, L., Knieper, C., & Nikitina, E. (2012). From applying panaceas to mastering complexity: Towards adaptive water governance in river basins. Environmental Science & Policy, 23, 24–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl, B., Carius, A., Conca, K., Dabelko, G., Kramer, A., Michel, D., et al. (2014). The rise of hydro-diplomacy. Strengthening foreign policy for transboundary waters. Berlin: Adelphi, Federal Foreign Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rangeley, R., Thiam, B., Andersen, R., & Lyle, C. (1994). International River Basin Organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Technical paper no. 25. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

  • Rieckermann, J., Daebel, H., Ronteltap, M., & Bernauer, T. (2006). Assessing the performance of international water management at Lake Titicaca (Vol. 12). Working paper. Zürich: Center for Comparative and International Studies, ETH Zürich and University of Zürich.

  • Rogers, P., & Hall, A. (2003). Effective water governance. Stockholm: Global Water Partnership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunier, R. E., & Meganck, R. A. (2007). Dictionary and introduction to global environmental governance. London: Earthscan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savenije, H., & van der Zaag, P. (2008). Integrated water resources management: Concepts and issues. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 33, 290–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmeier, S. (2013). Governing international watercourses. River basin organizations and the sustainable governance of internationally shared rivers and lakes. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegfried, T., & Bernauer, T. (2007). Estimating the performance of international regulatory regimes: Methodology and empirical application to international water management in the Naryn/Syr Darya basin. Water Resources Research, 43(11), W11406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solanes, M., & Jouravlev, A. (2006). Water governance for development and sustainability. http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/0/26200/lcl2556e.pdf. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • Spector, B. (2000). Motivating water diplomacy: Finding the situational incentives to negotiate. International Negotiation, 5(2), 223–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stinnett, D., & Tir, J. (2009). The institutionalization of river treaties. International Negotiation, 14(2), 229–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teclaff, L. (1996). Evolution of the river basin concept in national and international water law. Natural Resources Journal, 36, 359–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tir, J., & Ackerman, J. (2009). Politics of formalized river cooperation. Journal of Peace Research, 46(5), 623–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database. International freshwater treaties database. http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/database/interfreshtreatdata.html. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • Underdal, A. (2002). One question, two answers. In E. L. Miles, S. Andersen, E. M. Carlin, J. B. Skjaerseth, A. Underdal, & J. Wettestad (Eds.), Global environmental accord. Environmental regime effectiveness. Confronting theory with evidence (pp. 3–45). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations convention on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 21 May 1997, General Assembly Resolution 51/229.

  • United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and Central Asia (UNECE). (2009). River basin commissions and other institutions for Transboundary Water Cooperation. New York and Geneva: UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes.

  • United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and Central Asia (UNECE). Convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes, adopted 17 March 1992 in Helsinki, Finland.

  • United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2003). Water security and peace: A synthesis of studies. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001333/133318e.pdf. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • United States Office of the Director of National Intelligence (U.S. ODNI). (2012). Global water security. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of States.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wettestad, J. (1999). Designing effective environmental regimes: The Key Conditions. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

  • Wolf, A. (2007). Shared waters: Conflict and cooperation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32, 241–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, A., Natharius, J., Danielson, J., Ward, B., & Pender, J. (1999). International river basins of the world. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 15(4), 387–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, A., Yoffe, S., & Giordano, M. (2003). International waters: Identifying basins at risk. Water Policy, 5, 26–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2006). Integrated river basin management: From concepts to good practice. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Water Council (WWC). (2006). In P. Martinez Austria & P. van Hofwegen (Eds.), Synthesis of the 4th world water forum. http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/World_Water_Forum/WWF4/synthesis_sept06.pdf. (Accessed June 23, 2013).

  • World Wildlife Fund (WWF). (2003). Managing rivers wisely: Lessons from WWF’s work for integrated river basin management. Washington, DC: WWF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoffe, S., Wolf, A., & Giordano, M. (2003). Conflict and cooperation over international freshwater resources: Indicators of basins at risk. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 39(5), 1109–1126.

  • Young, O. R. (1986). International regimes: Towards a new theory of institutions. World Politics, 39(1), 104–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, O. R. (1994). International governance. Protecting the environment in a stateless society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, O. R. (2013). Sugaring off: Enduring insights from long-term research on environmental governance. International Environmental Agreements, 13, 87–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zawahri, N. (2008). Designing river commissions to implement treaties and manage water disputes: The story of the Joint Water Committee and Permanent Indus Commission. Water International, 33(4), 464–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zürn, M. (2010). Global governance as multi-level governance. In Henrik. Enderlein, Sonja. Wälti, & Michael. Zürn (Eds.), Handbook on multi-level governance (pp. 80–99). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gesellschaft für internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 105, 65760, Eschborn, Germany

    Susanne Schmeier

  2. International Studies Association, School of Government and Public Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Andrea K. Gerlak

  3. Centre for Area Studies, University of Leipzig, Thomaskirchhof 20, 04109, Leipzig, Germany

    Sabine Blumstein

Authors
  1. Susanne Schmeier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andrea K. Gerlak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sabine Blumstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susanne Schmeier.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schmeier, S., Gerlak, A.K. & Blumstein, S. Clearing the muddy waters of shared watercourses governance: conceptualizing international River Basin Organizations. Int Environ Agreements 16, 597–619 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-015-9287-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-015-9287-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation