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Influences of Forest Structure on the Density and Habitat Preference of Two Sympatric Gibbons (Symphalangus syndactylus and Hylobates lar)

International Journal of Primatology volume 42, pages 237–261 (2021)Cite this article

Abstract

Forest structure, defined as the three-dimensional vertical and horizontal distribution of canopy vegetation, has a great influence on the distribution patterns and abundance of forest primates. The complexity of this structural canopy produces a diverse range of microhabitats and distinct ecological niches, allowing ecologically similar species to coexist. Degradation of forests through anthropogenic factors significantly alters forest structure, and arboreal species such as gibbons are particularly vulnerable to these changes because of their reliance on canopy for survival. We investigated how forest structural variables influenced the density of two sympatric gibbon species (siamangs, Symphalangus syndactylus and lar gibbons, Hylobates lar) in Sikundur, a historically disturbed tropical lowland forest in north Sumatra. We used auditory sampling to establish group density in 10 locations and assessed structural characteristics of forest within 4–6 vegetation plots in each location. Lar gibbon group densities were 0.53–3.10 groups/km2 and siamang group densities were lower, with 0.0–1.0 groups/km2. The densities of both species were positively influenced by median height of first bole and the percentage of canopy connectivity. Lar gibbon group density was positively related to large (diameter at breast height 30–100 cm), tall (20–25 m) trees with a large crown area (100–300 m2), while siamang group density showed no significant relationships with these variables. These findings show canopy connectivity and height to first bole are significant structural variables for the continued presence of both gibbon species although, ecologically similar species can be influenced by different levels of structural disturbance. This canopy structural variation between sympatric species existing in the same ecosystem allows for home range overlap, low interspecific competition, and coexistence.

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Acknowledgments

We gratefully thank the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia (RISTEKDIKTI, Permit No. 50/SIP/FRP/E5/Dit.KI/II/2016), the Nature Conservation Agency (BKSDA), and the Gunung Leuser National Park authorities (TNGL) for granting all the necessary permits, without which this research could not have been undertaken. We are very grateful for the support and collaboration from Universitas Sumatera Utara and Universitas Syiah Kuala, and all staff from the international offices who provided logistical support throughout our time in Indonesia. We gratefully acknowledge all researchers and field staff who assisted with the project: Suprayudi Rimba, Ben, Rikki, Wynn, Ucok, and Yangsa, without whom various aspects of this field work would not have been possible. We would like to thank Dr. Ben Stevenson and Dr. Charlotte Jones-Todd, who provided help and advice on the ASCR statistical package. Fieldwork was funded by Bournemouth University (Global Horizon Fund grant) and the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP). Grants were received from the Primate Society of Great Britain (PSGB) and the International Primatological Society (IPS), allowing this work to be undertaken. We are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for feedback on a previous version of the manuscript and to the editor, whose invaluable help and comments led to a much improved article.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

    Emma L. Hankinson, Vincent Nijman & Susan M. Cheyne

  2. Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK

    Emma L. Hankinson, Ross A. Hill, Christopher D. Marsh & Amanda H. Korstjens

  3. Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia

    Matt G. Nowak &  Supriadi

  4. Fakultas Biologi, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

    Abdullah Abdullah

  5. Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia

    Nursahara Pasaribu

Authors
  1. Emma L. Hankinson
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  2. Ross A. Hill
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  3. Christopher D. Marsh
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  4. Matt G. Nowak
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  5. Abdullah Abdullah
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  6. Nursahara Pasaribu
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  7. Supriadi
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  8. Vincent Nijman
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Contributions

AK, RAH, MGN, ELH, and CDM originally formulated the ideas and methods for the study. ELH, CDM, and S conducted the fieldwork. AA and NP facilitated permits in the country to allow the research to be undertaken. ELH and MGN conducted the statistical analyses. ELH wrote the manuscript. All the authors contributed editorial advice on the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Emma L. Hankinson.

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Handling Editor: Joanna Setchell.

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Hankinson, E.L., Hill, R.A., Marsh, C.D. et al. Influences of Forest Structure on the Density and Habitat Preference of Two Sympatric Gibbons (Symphalangus syndactylus and Hylobates lar). Int J Primatol 42, 237–261 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-021-00199-2

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-021-00199-2

Keywords

  • Conservation
  • Primate abundance
  • Rainforest
  • Small ape