During a 5-yr study of lion-tailed macaques in their natural habitat, we found that: 1) most births occurred from January to April (70%) and from September to December (19%), showing a bimodal pattern with a major and a minor birth peak; 2) the period of peaks remained the same over 5 yr; and 3) a similar pattern of birth peaks occurred both in groups in large forest complexes that had overlapping home ranges with other groups and in single groups that were isolated in forest fragments in the same region but with similar ecological conditions. The results suggest more of a birth seasonality than mere breeding synchronization in the wild lion-tailed macaques. We also analyzed data on births in captivity in European Zoos for 10 yr. We observed no seasonality or peaks in births, and the pattern was the same over the years. Data on rainfall suggest that resource availability in the wild habitat may not be uniform throughout the year; hence, ecological factors may play an important role in determination of birth patterns in the natural habitats of lion-tailed macaques.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Altmann, J. (1980). Baboon Mothers and Infants. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Boinski, S. (1987). Birth synchrony in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 21: 393–400.
Butynski, T. M. (1988). Guenon birth season and correlates with rainfall and food. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gautier, J. P., and Kingdon, J. (eds), A Primate Radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 284–322.
Clarke, A. S., Harvey, N. C., and Lindburg, D. G. (1992). Reproductive coordination in a nonseasonally breeding primate species, Macaca silenus. Ethology 91: 46–58.
Crockett, C., and Rudran, R. (1987). Red howler monkey birth data. I. Seasonal variation. Am. J. Primatol. 13: 347–468.
Di Bitetti, M., and Janson, C. H. (2000). When will the stork arrive? Patterns of birth seasonality in neotropical primates. Am. J. Primatol. 50: 109–130.
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1984). Reproductive Decision. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Goldizen, A. W., Terborgh, J., Cornejo, F., Porras, D. T., and Evans, R. (1988). Seasonal food shortage, weight loss and the timing of birth in saddle back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis). J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 893–901.
IUCN (1996). IUCN Redlist of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland.
Kaumanns, W., and Rohrhuber, B. (1995). Captive propagation in lion-tailed macaques: The status of the European population and research implications. In Ganslosser, U., Hodges, J. K., and Kaumanns, W. (eds.), Research and Captive Propagation. Filander Verlag, Furth, pp. 296–309.
Kavanagh, M. (1983). Birth seasonality in Cercopithecus aethiops: A social advantage from synchrony? In Seth, P. K. (ed.), Perspective in Primate Biology. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 89–98.
Krebs, E., and Kaumanns, W. (2002). European Studbook for the Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus). Cologne Zoo, Cologne.
Krishnamani, R., and Kumar, A. (2000). Phyto-ecology of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) in Karnataka, India: Floristic structure and density of food trees. Primate Rep. 58: 27–56.
Kumar, A. (1987). Ecology and Population Dynamics of Lion-Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) in South India. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Kumar, A. (1995). The life history, ecology, distribution and conservation problems in the wild. In Kumar, A., Mollur, S., and Walker, S. (eds.), The Lion-Tailed Macaque: Population and Habitat Viability Assessment Workshop. Zoo Outreach Organization, Coimbatore, pp. 1–11.
Kumara, H. N., Singh, M. E., Sharma, A. K., Singh, M. R., and Kumar, M. A. (2000). Faunal component in the diet of lion-tailed macaque. Primate Rep. 58: 57–65.
Lancaster, J. B., and Lee, R. B. (1965). The annual reproductive cycles in monkeys and apes. In De Vore, I. (ed.), Primate Behavior, Field Studies of Monkeys and Apes. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, pp. 486–513.
Lindburg, D. G. (1987). Seasonality of reproduction in primates. In Mitchell, G., and Erwin, J. (eds.), Comparative Primate Biology. Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 167–218.
Lindburg, D. G., Lyles, A. M., and Czekala, N. M. (1989). Status and reproductive potential of lion-tailed macaques in captivity. Zoo Biol. Suppl. 1: 5–16.
Rawlins, R. C., and Kesseler, M. J. (1985). Climate and seasonal reproduction in the Cayo Santiago macaques. Am. J. Primatol. 9: 87–99.
Singh, M., Kumara, H. N., Ananda Kumar, M., and Sharma, A. K. (2001). Behavioural responses of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) to a changing habitat in a tropical rainforest fragment in the Western Ghats, India. Folia Primatol. 72: 278–291.
Singh, M., Singh, M., Kumara, H. N., Kumar, M. A., and D’Souza, L. (1997). Inter- and intra-specific associations of non-human primates in Anaimalai Hills, South India. Mammalia 61: 17–28.
Singh, M., Singh, M., Kumar, M. A., Kumara, H. N., Sharma, A. K., and Kaumanns, W. (2002). Distribution, population structure and conservation of lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) in Anaimalai Hills, Western Ghats, India. Am. J. Primatol. 57: 91–102.
Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A., and Siddiqi, M. R. (1965). Rhesus monkey in north India. In De Vore, I. (ed.), Primate Behavior. Field Studies of Monkeys and Apes. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, pp. 111–159.
Sushma, H. S. (2004). Resource Utilization and Niche Separation in Sympatric Rainforest Arboreal Mammals. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Mysore, Mysore.
van Schaik, C. P., and van Noordwijk, M. A. (1985). Interannual variability in fruit abundance and the reproductive seasonality in Sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). J. Zool. Lond. 206: 533–549.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Tamilnadu Forest Department and the management of Puthuthotam Estates for permissions. We acknowledge the help from Tea Research Institute, United Planters Association of South India, Valparai for the data on rainfall. We thank Waterfall Estates for providing logistical facilities. Comments on the first draft by Drs. Irwin Bernstein, Matthew Cooper, Donald Lindburg, and Bernard Thierry helped improve the article. We acknowledge the help of H.S. Sushma, Dr. Cornelia Bertsch, and Dr. Ajith Kumar at various stages of the study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sharma, A.K., Singh, M., Kaumanns, W. et al. Birth Patterns in Wild and Captive Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus). Int J Primatol 27, 1429–1439 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-006-9077-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-006-9077-5