Abstract
This study used three previously validated instruments, namely Science Academic Hardiness (SAH), Students’ Conceptions of Learning Science (COLS) and Science Learning Self-Efficacy (SLSE) on 431 Singaporean students. Using structural equation modeling, results showed that the SAH commitment dimension a positive predictor explaining both the reproductive (e.g. science learning as memorizing or testing) and constructivist (e.g. science learning as understanding or seeing in a new way) conceptions of science learning as well as all dimensions of students’ self-efficacy among high school students. It was also found that the SAH control dimension is a positive predictor for explaining the SLSE science communication dimension but is a negative predictor for explaining reproductive COLS. Finally, only students with constructivist COLS had significant associations with all SLSE dimensions. These findings suggest that students’ personal commitment to learning science is an important aspect to cultivate since it has the ability to predict conceptions of science learning and self-efficacy. Further, creating opportunities for students to be engaged in learning through constructivist ways—such as designing tasks to help students understand and see phenomena in new ways and occasions for students to apply their science knowledge to solve science problems—is likely to lead to positive self-efficacy in practical science work, science communication, and everyday applications of scientific knowledge. Additionally, students’ engagement in reproductive ways of learning science—such as memorization, testing, and calculating and practicing—could be reduced since these do not contribute to building students’ science learning self-efficacy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baldwin, J., Ebert-May, D., & Burns, D. (1999). The development of a college biology self-efficacy instrument for non-majors. Science Education, 83, 397–408.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bembenutty, H. (2007). Self-regulation of learning and academic delay of gratification: Gender and ethnic differences among college students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(4), 586–616.
Benishek, L. A., & Lopez, F. G. (2001). Development and initial validation of a measure of academic hardiness. Journal of Career Assessment, 9(4), 333–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/106907270100900402.
Cheng, Y.-H., Tsai, C.-C., & Liang, J.-C. (2019). Academic hardiness and academic self-efficacy in graduate studies. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(5), 907–921.
Chiou, G. L., Lee, M. H., & Tsai, C.-C. (2013). High school students’ approaches to learning physics with relationship to epistemic views on physics and conceptions of learning physics. Research in Science & Technological Education, 31(1), 1–15.
Chiou, G. L., Liang, J.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2011). Undergraduate students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning in biology: A study of their structural models and gender differences. International Journal of Science Education, 34(2), 167–195.
Choy, D., Deng, F., Chai, S. S., Koh, H. L. J., & Tsai, P.-S. (2016). Singapore primary and secondary students’ motivated approaches for learning: A validation study. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 282–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.019.
Creed, P. A., Conlon, E. G., & Dhaliwal, K. (2013). Revisiting academic hardiness scale: Revision and revalidation. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712475285.
Davie, S. (2017, August 20). Singapore students suffer from high levels of anxiety: Study. The straits times Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/spore-students-suffer-from-high-levels-of-anxiety-study.
Hidi, S. (1990). Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review for Educational Research, 60(4), 549–571.
Hsin, C.-T., Liang, J.-C., Hsu, C.-Y., Shih, M., Shen, F.-R., & Tsai, C.-C. (2019). Young children’s conceptions of learning: A cross-sectional study of the early years of schooling. Asia-Pacific Education Research, 28(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1001/s40299-018-0419-9.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International.
Kamtsios, S., & Karagiannopoulou, E. (2012). Conceptualizing students’ academic hardiness dimensions: A qualitative study. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 807–823.
Kim, M., Tan, A.-L., & Talaue, F. T. (2013). New vision and challenges in inquiry-based curriculum change in Singapore. International Journal of Science Education, 35(2), 289–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2011.636844.
Lau, C. Y. L. (2019). Students’ approaches to learning secondary science in Singapore: Perspective from achievement motivation (unpublished doctoral dissertation). National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Lee, M. H., Johanson, R., & Tsai, C.-C. (2008). Exploring Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning science through a structural equation modeling analysis. Science Education, 92(2), 191–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20245.
Lin, T.-C., Liang, J.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2015). Conception of memorizing and understanding in learning, and self-efficacy held by university biology majors. International Journal of Science Education, 37(3), 446-468. Doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2014.992057.
Lin, T-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2013). A multi-dimensional instrument for evaluating Taiwanese high school students’ science learning self-efficacy in relation to their approaches to learning science. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11(6), 1275–1301.
Lin, T.-J., Liang, J.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2015). Identifying Taiwanese university students’ physics learning profiles and their role in physics learning self-efficacy. Research in Science Education, 45, 605–624.
Lin, T.-J., Tan, A.-L., & Tsai, C.-C. (2013). A cross-cultural comparison of Singaporean and Taiwanese eighth graders’ science learning self-efficacy from a multi-dimensional perspective. International Journal of Science Education, 35(7), 1083-1109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2013.776193.
Lin, T.-J., & Tsai, C.-C. (2013). An investigation of Taiwanese high school students’ science learning self-efficacy in relation to their conceptions of learning science. Research in Science & Technological Education, 31(3), 308–323.
Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 54(3), 175–185.
Maddi, S. R., Harvey, R. H., Khoshaba, D. M., Fazel, M., & Resurreccion, N. (2009). Hardiness training facilitates performance in college. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 566–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903157133.
Marton, F., Watkins, D., & Tang, C. (1997). Discontinuities and continuities in the experiences of learning: An interview study of high school students in Hong Kong. Learning and Instruction, 7(1), 21–48.
Muhammed, Y. (2011). Investigating relationship between self-efficacy, achievement motivation, and self-regulated learning strategies of undergraduate students: A study of integrated motivational models. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 2614–2617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.156.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018). PISA 2015 results in focus. Paris, France: Author Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf.
Pinto, G., Bigozzi, L., Vettori, G., & Vezzani, C. (2018). The relationship between conceptions of learning and academic outcomes in middle school students according to gender differences. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 16, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2017.11.001.
Saklofske, D. H., & Greenspoon, P. J. (2000). Confirmatory factor analysis of the MSLSS: A reply to Shevlin et al. Personality and Individual Difference, 28, 187–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00070-7.
Sheard, M. (2009). Hardiness commitment, gender, and age differentiate university academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709908x304406.
Sheard, M., & Golby, J. (2007). Hardiness and undergraduate academic study: The moderating role of commitment. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(3), 579–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.01.006.
Planning, S. C., & Division, D. (2008). Lower secondary science syllabus. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
Singapore Ministry of Communication and Information. (2018). Analysis of revenue and expenditure – Financial year 2018. Retrieved from https://www.gov.sg/~/sgpcmedia/media_releases/mof/press_release/p-20180219-5/attachment/19%20analysis%20of%20revenue%20and%20expenditure%202018.pdf.
Tan, A.-L., Poon, C.-L., & Lim, S. S. L. (2014). Inquiry into the Singapore science classroom: Research and practice. Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4585-78-1.
Tan, P.-H. (2018). Discourses of four primary science teachers about formative assessment related to science inquiry hands-on activities in Singapore (unpublished doctoral dissertation). National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2010). Are Asian international medical students just rote learners? Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 15(3), 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-009-9203-1.
Teng, A., & Lee, P. (2015, February 23). Only one right answer to science questions? The straits times Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/only-one-right-answer-to-science-questions.
Tsai, C.-C. (2004). Conceptions of learning science among high school students in Taiwan: A phenomenographic analysis. International Journal of Science Education, 26, 1733–1750.
Tsai, C.-C., Ho, H. N. J., Liang, J.-C., & Lin, H.-M. (2011). Scientific epistemic beliefs, conceptions of learning science and self-efficacy of learning science among high school students. Learning and Instruction, 21, 757–769.
United States National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9596
United States National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13165
United States National Research Council. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18290
Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of the literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 78, 751–796.
Uzuntiryaki, E., & Capa Aydin, Y. (2009). Development and validation of chemistry self-efficacy scale for college students. Research in Science Education, 39, 539–551.
Wang, Y.-L., Liang, J.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2017). Cross-cultural comparisons of university students’ science learning self-efficacy: Structural relationships among factors within science learning self-efficacy. International Journal of Science Education, 40(6), 579-594. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1315780.
Wang, Y.-L., & Tsai, C.-C. (2016). Taiwanese students’ science learning self-efficacy and teacher and student science hardiness: A multilevel model approach. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31, 537–555.
Watters, D. J. (2007). Approaches to learning by students’ in biological sciences: Implications for teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 29(1), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690600621282.
Watters, J. J. (2000). Pitfalls in the development of generic attributes in undergraduate students. In K. Appleton, C. Macpherson, & D. Orr (Eds.), Proceedings of the inaugural lifelong learning conference (pp. 88–94). Rockhampton, Australia: Central Queensland University.
Zheng, L., Dong, Y., Huang, R., Chang, C.-Y., & Bhagat, K. K. (2018). Investigating the interrelationships among conceptions of approaches to and self-efficacy in learning science. International Journal of Science Education, 40(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1402142.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
CFA Results for the SAH, COLS, and SLSE Surveys (N = 431).
Constructs and items | Factor loading | t-value | CR | AVE | α value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SAH Survey | |||||
Commitment (Com): M = 3.85, SD = .71 | – | – | .86 | .51 | .86 |
Com1. I take my work as a student seriously. | .79 | – | |||
Com2. I am a dedicated student. | .82 | 17.78* | |||
Com3. I work hard for grades. | .77 | 16.41* | |||
Com4. I am involved in all my classes. | .62 | 12.89* | |||
Com5. Regardless of the class, I do my best. | .66 | 13.77* | |||
Com6. I make personal sacrifices to get good grades. | .59 | 12.16* | |||
Control (Con): M = 2.98, SD = .98 | – | – | .82 | .54 | .82 |
Con1. If I do poorly, I doubt my ability as a student. | .66 | – | |||
Con2. It is difficult for me to bounce back from academic disappointment. | .85 | 13.36* | |||
Con3. I become less motivated to study when I do not get the grades I want right away. | .73 | 12.33* | |||
Con4. If I get behind, I panic and feel ill. | .69 | 11.88* | |||
COLS Survey | |||||
Reproductive Conception (RC = Memorizing + Testing + Calculating and practicing) | |||||
Memorizing (M): M = 3.58, SD = .85 | – | – | .87 | .57 | .87 |
M1. Learning science means memorizing the definitions, formulae, and laws found in a science textbook. | .73 | – | |||
M2. Learning science means memorizing the important concepts found in a science textbook. | .76 | 14.86* | |||
M3. Learning science means memorizing the proper nouns found in a science textbook that can help solve the teacher’s questions. | .80 | 15.55* | |||
M4. Learning science means remembering what the teacher lectures about in science class. | .70 | 13.66* | |||
M5. Learning science means memorizing scientific symbols, scientific concepts, and facts. | .78 | 15.24* | |||
Testing (T): M = 2.87, SD = .88 | – | – | .84 | .64 | .81 |
T1. Learning science means getting high scores on examinations. | .59 | – | |||
T2. There are no benefits to learning science other than getting high scores on examinations. In fact, I can get along well without knowing many scientific facts. | .59 | 9.55* | |||
T3. The major purpose of learning science is to get more familiar with test materials. | .76 | 11.24* | |||
T4. I learn science so that I can do well on science-related tests. | .77 | 11.36* | |||
T5. There is a close relationship between learning science and taking tests. | .71 | 10.81* | |||
Calculating and practicing (CP): M = 3.81, SD = .71 | – | – | .82 | .47 | .85 |
CP1. Learning science involves a series of calculations and problem-solving. | .70 | – | |||
CP2. I think that learning calculation or problem-solving will help me improve my performance in science courses. | .75 | 14.06* | |||
CP3. Learning science means knowing how to use the correct formulae when solving problems. | .80 | 14.92* | |||
CP4. The way to learn science well is to constantly practice calculations and problem solving. | .74 | 13.95* | |||
CP5. There is a close relationship between learning science, being good at calculations, and constant practice. | .69 | 13.01* | |||
Constructivist Conception (CC = Increase one’s knowledge + Applying + Understanding and seeing in a new way) | |||||
Increase one’s knowledge (IK): M = 4.01, SD = .71 | – | – | .88 | .66 | .88 |
IK1. I am learning science when the teacher tells me scientific facts that I did not know before. | .70 | – | |||
IK2. Learning science means acquiring more knowledge about natural phenomena and topics related to nature. | .85 | 16.23* | |||
IK3. Learning science helps me acquire more facts about nature. | .84 | 16.07* | |||
IK4. I am learning science when I increase my knowledge of natural phenomena and topics related to nature. | .85 | 16.24* | |||
Application (A): M = 3.80, SD = .76 | – | – | .82 | .70 | .81 |
A1. The purpose of learning science is learning how to apply methods I already know to unknown problems. | .74 | – | |||
A2. Learning science means learning how to apply knowledge and skills I already know to unknown problems. | .92 | 16.13* | |||
Understanding and seeing in a new way (US): M = 3.99, SD = .68 | – | – | .86 | .61 | .86 |
US1. Learning science means understanding the connection between scientific concepts. | .76 | – | |||
US2. Learning science helps me view natural phenomena and topics related to nature in new ways. | .81 | 16.99* | |||
US3. Learning science means finding a better way to view natural phenomena or topics related to nature. | .79 | 16.38* | |||
US4. I can learn more ways about thinking about natural phenomena or topics related to nature by learning science. | .76 | 15.86* | |||
SLSE Survey | |||||
Practical work (PW): M = 4.05, SD = .67 | – | – | .88 | .65 | .88 |
PW1. I know how to carry out experimental procedures in the science laboratory. | .81 | – | |||
PW2. I know how to use equipment (for example, measuring cylinders, measuring scale, etc.) in the science laboratory. | .81 | 18.47* | |||
PW3. I know how to set-up equipment for laboratory experiments. | .84 | 19.35* | |||
PW4. I know how to collect data during the science laboratory. | .77 | 17.41* | |||
Everyday Application (EA): M = 3.69, SD = .63 | – | – | .86 | .47 | .86 |
EA1. I am able to explain everyday life by using scientific theories. | .77 | – | |||
EA2. I am able to propose solutions to everyday problems by using science. | .74 | 15.49* | |||
EA3. I can understand the news/documentaries I watch on television related to science. | .67 | 13.79* | |||
EA4. I can recognize the careers related to science. | .55 | 11.18* | |||
EA5. I am able to use scientific methods to solve problems in everyday life. | .73 | 15.23* | |||
EA6. I can understand and interpret social issues related to science (for example, nuclear power usage and genetically modified foods) in a scientific manner. | .66 | 13.75* | |||
EA7. I am aware that a variety of phenomena in daily life involve science-related concepts. | .64 | 13.29* | |||
Science Communication (SC): M = 3.60, SD = .89 | – | – | .85 | .54 | .85 |
SC1. I am able to comment on presentations made by my classmates in science class. | .69 | 13.99* | |||
SC2. I am able to use what I have learned in science classes to discuss with others. | .75 | 14.37* | |||
SC3. I am able to clearly explain what I have learned to others. | .77 | 14.35* | |||
SC4. I feel comfortable discussing science content with my classmates. | .77 | 12.77* | |||
SC5. In science classes, I can clearly express my own opinions. | .68 | 13.75* |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tan, AL., Liang, JC. & Tsai, CC. Relationship among High School Students’ Science Academic Hardiness, Conceptions of Learning Science and Science Learning Self-Efficacy in Singapore. Int J of Sci and Math Educ 19, 313–332 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-019-10040-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-019-10040-1