Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Non-native rainbow trout change the structure of benthic communities in headwater streams of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa

  • Primary Research Paper
  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Introduced rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss have invaded many headwater streams in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) and depleted, or eliminated, native fish populations. However, the question of whether trout invasions also have consequences for lower trophic levels in these systems has not been addressed. We used a broad-scale comparative study in the upper Breede River catchment (CFR) to evaluate differences in benthic community structure between sites on headwater streams with and without trout, and thereby infer community-level impacts of trout. There were differences in invertebrate abundance and assemblage composition, and algal biomass, between sites with and without trout. Specifically, the abundance of certain herbivorous invertebrate taxa was higher, and the biomass of benthic algae lower, at sites invaded by trout. This pattern implies that trout have induced a trophic cascade by releasing herbivorous invertebrates from predation, leading to an increase in grazing pressure and a consequent indirect decrease in the biomass of benthic algae; a pattern that contrasts with the majority of studies investigating community-level impacts of introduced trout elsewhere. These findings, together with comparisons of environmental conditions between invaded and uninvaded sites, indicate that trout invasions have changed the structure and function of benthic communities in these streams.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, M. J., R. N. Gorley & K. R. Clarke, 2008. PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: Guide to Software and Statistical Methods. PRIMER-E, Plymouth, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arismendi, I., J. González, D. Soto & B. Penaluna, 2012. Piscivory and diet overlap between two non-native fishes in southern Chilean streams. Austral Ecology 37: 346–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber-James, H. M. & C. R. Lugo-Oritz, 2003. Ephemeroptera. In de Moor, I. J., J. A. Day, F. C. de Moor (eds), Guides to the Freshwater Invertebrates of Southern Africa, Vol. 7, Insecta I – Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera. Water Research Commission, Report No. TT 207/03, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • Bechara, J. A., G. Moreau & D. Planas, 1992. Top-down effects of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in a boreal forest stream. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 49: 2093–2103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, J. R., K. D. Fausch & C. V. Baxter, 2011. Species replacement by a nonnative salmonid alters ecosystem function by reducing prey subsidies that support riparian spiders. Oecologia 167: 503–512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, B. J. F. & C. Kilroy, 2000. Stream periphyton monitoring manual. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Report No. 0-478-09099-4. Christchurch, New Zealand.

  • Biggs, B. J. F., S. N. Francoeur, A. D. Huryn, R. Young, C. J. Arbuckle & C. R. Townsend, 2000. Trophic cascades in streams: effects of nutrient enrichment on autotrophic and consumer benthic communities under two different fish predation regimes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 1380-139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bovee, K. D., 1982. A guide to stream habitat analysis using the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Instream flow information Paper No. 12. FWS/OBS-82/26. Washington DC, USA.

  • Buria, L., R. Albariño, V. D. Villanueva, B. Modenutti & E. Balseiro, 2010. Does predation by the introduced rainbow trout cascade down to detritus and algae in a forested small stream in Patagonia? Hydrobiologia 651: 161–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cambray, J. A., 2003a. Impact on indigenous species biodiversity caused by the globalisation of alien recreational freshwater fisheries. Hydrobiologia 500: 217–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cambray, J. A., 2003b. The global impact of alien trout species – a review; with reference to their impact in South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Science 28: 61–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakona, A. & E. R. Swartz, 2013. A new redfin species, Pseudobarbus skeltoni (Cyprinidae, Teleostei), from the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Zootaxa 3686: 565–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chalcraft, D. R. & W. J. Resetarits, 2003. Predator identity and ecological impacts: functional redundancy or functional diversity? Ecology 84: 2407–2418.

  • Clarke, K. R. & R. N. Gorley, 2006. PRIMER v6: user manual/tutorial. PRIMER-E, Plymouth, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowling, R. M. & P. M. Holmes, 1992. Flora and vegetation. In Cowling, R. M. (ed.), The Ecology of Fynbos: Nutrients, Fire and Diversity. Oxford University Press, Cape Town, South Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, K. W., R. W. Merritt & M. B. Berg, 2008. An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Iowa, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, J. & L. A. Greenberg, 1996. Impact on stream benthic prey by benthic vs drift feeding predators: a meta-analysis. Oikos 77: 177–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day, J. A. & I. J. de Moor, 2002a. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa, Vol. 6, Arachnida and Mollusca – Araneae, water mites and Mollusca. WRC Report No. TT 182/02. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • Day, J. A. & I. J. de Moor, 2002b. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of Southern Africa, Vol. 5, Non-Arthropods – the Protozoans, Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Rotifera, Nematoda, Nematomorpha, Gastrotrichia, Bryozoa, Tardigrada, Polychaeta, Oligochaeta and Hirudine. WRC Report No. TT 167/02. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • Day, J. A., B. A. Stewart, I. J. de Moor & A. E. Louw, 2001. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa: Volume 4, Crustacea III. WRC Report No. TT 141/01. Water Research Commission,Pretoria, South Africa.

  • Day, J. A., A. D. Harrison & I. J. de Moor, 2003. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa, Vol. 9, Diptera. WRC Report No. TT 201/02. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • de Moor, F. C. & M. N. Bruton, 1988. Atlas of alien and translocated indigenous aquatic animals of southern Africa. South African National Scientific Program Report No. 144, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria, South Africa.

  • de Moor, F. C. & J. A. Day, 2013. Aquatic biodiversity in the mediterranean region of South Africa. Hydrobiologia [online]. doi:10.1007/s10750-013-1488-7, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10750-013-1488-7.

  • de Moor, F. C. & K. M. F. Scott, 2003. Trichoptera. In de Moor, I. J., J. A. Day, & F. C. de Moor (eds), Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa: Volume 8, Insecta II – Hemiptera, Megaloptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera and Lepidoptera. WRC Report No. TT 214/03. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • de Moor, I. J., J. A. Day & F. C. de Moor, 2003. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa, Vol. 7, Insecta I – Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera. WRC Report No. TT 207/03. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • de Wet, S., 1990. The feeding ecology of the redfin minnow P. burchelli (Cyprinidae) in the Steenboks and Hex tributaries of the Breede River system. MSc thesis, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.

  • Eby, L. A., W. J. Roach, L. B. Crowder & J. A. Stanford, 2006. Effects of stocking-up freshwater food webs. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21: 576–584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellender, B. R., O. L. F. Weyl & E. R. Swartz, 2011. Invasion of a headwater stream by non-native fishes in the Swartkops River system, South Africa. African Zoology 46: 39–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellender, B. R., A. Becker, O. L. F. Weyl & E. R. Swartz, 2012. Underwater video analysis as an non-destructive alternative to electrofishing for sampling imperilled headwater stream fishes. Aquatic Conservation 22: 58–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A., J. Terborgh, J. S. Brashares, M. E. Power, J. Berger, W. J. Bond, S. J. Carpenter, T. E. Essington, R. D. Holt, J. B. C. Jackson, R. J. Marquis, L. Oksanen, R. T. Paine, E. K. Pikitch, W. J. Ripple, S. A. Sandin, M. Scheffer, T. W. Schoener, J. B. Shurin, A. R. E. Sinclair, M. E. Soule, R. Virtanin & D. A. Wardle, 2011. Trophic downgrading of planet earth. Science 333: 301–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fausch, K. D., 2007. Introduction, establishment and effects of non-native salmonids: considering the risk of rainbow trout invasion in the United Kingdom. Journal of Fish Biology 71: 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flecker, A. S. & C. R. Townsend, 1994. Community-wide consequences of trout introduction in New Zealand streams. Ecological Applications 4: 798–807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greig, H. S. & A. R. McIntosh, 2006. Indirect effects of predatory trout on organic matter processing in detritus-based stream food webs. Oikos 1: 31–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, D. G. & G. H. Reeves, 1988. Estimating total fish abundance and total habitat area in small streams based on visual estimation methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45: 834–844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herbst, D. B., E. L. Silldorff & S. D. Cooper, 2009. The influence of introduced trout on the benthic communities of paired headwater streams in the Sierra Nevada of California. Freshwater Biology 54: 1324–1342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huryn, A. D., 1998. Ecosystem-level evidence for top-down and bottom-up control of production in a grassland stream system. Oecologia 115: 173–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kadye, W. T., A. Chakona, L. T. Marufu & T. Samukange, 2013. The impact of non-native rainbow trout within Afro-montane streams in eastern Zimbabwe. Hydrobiologia 720: 75–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepori, F., J. R. Benjamin, K. D. Fausch & C. V. Baxter, 2012. Are invasive and native trout functionally equivalent predators? Results and lessons from a field experiment. Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 22: 787–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lodge, D., 1993. Biological invasions: lessons for ecology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8: 133–137.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, S. R., D. J. Woodford, N. D. Impson & J. A. Day, 2008. The impact of invasive fish and invasive riparian plants on the invertebrate fauna of the Rondegat River, Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Science 33: 51–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, A. R. & C. R. Townsend, 1996. Interactions between fish, grazing invertebrates and algae in a New Zealand stream: a trophic cascade mediated by fish-induced changes to grazer behaviour? Oecologia 108: 174–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, A. R., B. L. Peckarsky & B. W. Taylor, 2004. Predator-induced resource heterogeneity in a stream food web. Ecology 85: 2279–2290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meissner, K. & T. Muotka, 2006. The role of trout in stream food webs: integrating evidence from field surveys and experiments. Journal of Animal Ecology 75: 421–433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mittelbach, G. G. & L. Persson, 1998. The ontogeny of piscivory and its ecological consequences. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55: 1454–1465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullner, S. A., W. A. Hubert & T. A. Weshe, 1998. Snorkelling as an alternative to depletion electrofishing for estimating abundance and length class frequencies of trout in small streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 18: 947–953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakano, S., Y. Kawaguchi, Y. Taniguchi, H. Miyasaka, Y. Shibata, H. Urabe & N. Kuhara, 1999. Selective foraging on terrestrial invertebrates by rainbow trout in a forested headwater stream in northern Japan. Ecological Research 14: 351–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyström, P., A. R. McIntosh & M. J. Winterbourn, 2003. Top-down and bottom-up processes in grassland and forested streams. Oecologia 136: 596–608.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oksanen, L., S. Fretwell, J. Arruda & P. Niemela, 1981. Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary productivity. American Naturalist 118: 240–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, M. L., J. J. Cole, S. R. Carpenter & J. F. Kitchell, 1999. Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14: 483–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, I. M., D. Simberloff, W. M. Lonsdale, K. Goodell, M. Wonham, P. M. Kareiva, M. H. Williamson, B. Von Holle, P. B. Moyle, J. E. Byers & L. Goldwasser, 1999. Impact: toward a framework for understanding the ecological effects of invaders. Biological Invasions 1: 3–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polis, G. A. & D. R. Strong, 1996. Food web complexity and community dynamics. American Naturalist 147: 813–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Power, M. E., 1990. Effects of fish in river food webs. Science 250: 811–814.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reice, S., 1991. Effects of detritus loading and fish predation on leafpack breakdown and benthic macroinvertebrates in a woodland stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 10: 42–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricciardi, A. & H. J. MacIsaac, 2011. Impacts of biological invasions on freshwater ecosystems. In Richardson, D. M. (ed.), Fifty Years of Invasion Ecology: The Legacy of Charles Elton. Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivers-Moore, N. A., B. Fowles & R. J. Karssing, 2013. Impacts of trout on aquatic macroinvertebrates in three Drakensberg rivers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Science 38: 93–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosemond, A. D., C. M. Pringle, A. Ramírez & M. J. Paul, 2001. A test of top-down and bottom-up control in a detritus-based food web. Ecology 82: 2279–2293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, J., 2000. Effects of fish predation in erosional and depositional habitats in a temperate stream. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 1369–1379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruetz, C. R., R. M. Newman & B. Vondracek, 2002. Top-down control in a detritus-based food web: fish, shredders, and leaf breakdown. Oecologia 132: 307–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruetz, C. R., B. Vondracek & R. M. Newman, 2004. Weak top-down control of grazers and periphyton by slimy sculpins in a coldwater stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23: 271–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samways, M. J., 1994. Damsels in distress. Africa Environment and Wildlife 2: 86–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, O. J., 2007. Predator diversity and trophic interactions. Ecology 88: 2415–2426.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, O. J., 2008. Effects of predator hunting mode on grassland ecosystem function. Science 319: 952–954.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, O. J. & K. B. Suttle, 2001. Effects of top predator species on direct and indirect interactions in a food web. Ecology 82: 2072–2081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, L. E. P., P. H. Skelton, A. J. Booth, L. Verheust, R. Harris & J. Dooley, 2006. Atlas of southern African freshwater fishes. Smithiania Monograph 2, Grahamstown, South Africa.

  • Shelton, J.M., M.J. Samways & J.A. Day, 2014. Predatory impact of non-native rainbow trout on endemic fish populations in headwater streams in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. Biological Invasions [online]. doi: 10.1007/s10530-014-0735-9.

  • Sih, A., D. I. Bolnick, B. Luttbeg, J. L. Orrock, S. D. Peacor, L. M. Pintor, E. Preisser, J. S. Rehage & J. R. Vonesh, 2010. Predator–prey naïveté, antipredator behavior, and the ecology of predator invasions. Oikos 119: 610–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, K. S. & C. R. Townsend, 2003. Impacts of freshwater invaders at different levels of ecological organisation, with emphasis on salmonids and ecosystem consequences. Freshwater Biology 48: 982–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SPSS, 2011. IBM SPSS Statistics, version 20.0. SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA.

  • Stals, R. & I. J. de Moor, 2007. Guides to the freshwater invertebrates of southern Africa, Vol. 10: Coleoptera. WRC Report No. TT 320/07. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

  • Steynor, A. C., B. C. Hewitson & M. A. Tadross, 2009. Projected future runoff of the Breede River under climate change. Water SA 35: 433–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurow, R. F., 1994. Underwater methods for study of salmonids in the Intermountain West. General Technical Report INTGTR-307, Ogden, Utah, USA.

  • Townsend, C. R., 2003. Individual, population, community, and ecosystem consequences of a fish invader in New Zealand streams. Conservation Biology 17: 38–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweddle, D., R. Bills, E. R. Swartz, W. Coetzer, L. Da Costa, J. Engelbrecht, J. A. Cambray, B. Marshall, N. D. Impson, P. H. Skelton, W. R. T. Darwall & K. G. Smith, 2009. The status and distribution of freshwater fishes. In Darwall, W. R. T., K. G. Smith, D. Tweddle & P. Skelton (eds), The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Information Press, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tankard, A. J., M. P. A. Jackson, K. A. Eriksson, D. K. Hobday, W. E. L. Hunter & D. R. Minter, 1982. The Cape trough: an aborted rift. In Tankard, A. J., M. P. A. Jackson, K. A. Eriksson, D. K. Hobday, W. E. L. Hunter, D. R. Minter (eds), Crustal evolution of southern Africa – 3.8 billion years of earth history. Springer, New York, USA.

  • Weyl, P. S. R., F. C. de Moor, M. P. Hill & O. L. F. Weyl, 2010. The effect of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides on aquatic macro-invertebrate communities in the Wit River, Eastern Cape, South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Science 35: 273–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weyl, O. L. F., B. R. Ellender, D. J. Woodford & M. S. Jordaan, 2013. Fish distributions in the Rondegat River, Cape Floristic Region, South Africa, and the immediate impact of rotenone treatment in an invaded reach. African Journal of Aquatic Science 38: 201–209.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, D. J. & N. D. Impson, 2004. Preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Science 29: 107–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, D. J., N. D. Impson, J. A. Day & I. R. Bills, 2005. The predatory impact of invasive alien smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu (Teleostei: Centrarchidae), on indigenous fishes in a Cape Floristic Region mountain stream. African Journal of Aquatic Science 30: 167–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Sampling was under CapeNature permit 0035-AAA 007-00057. We thank K. Tilanus and M. Bird for field assistance, and S. Marr and S. Lowe for constructive discussions. A. McIntosh provided insightful comments on an early draft of the manuscript. H. Waldron of the UCT Marine Research Institute conducted the nutrient analysis. For many hours of committed laboratory work, we are grateful to L. Phigeland, K. Barnes, S. Marr and K. Tilanus. Thanks also to D. Schael, M. Picker, M. Bird and V. Ross-Gillespie for assisting with invertebrate identifications. Financial support was from the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology (CIB), the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), the University of Cape Town (UCT) and the Cape Tercentenary Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa

    Jeremy M. Shelton & Jenny A. Day

  2. DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa

    Jeremy M. Shelton

  3. Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa

    Michael J. Samways

Authors
  1. Jeremy M. Shelton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael J. Samways
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jenny A. Day
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeremy M. Shelton.

Additional information

Handling editor: John Havel

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Shelton, J.M., Samways, M.J. & Day, J.A. Non-native rainbow trout change the structure of benthic communities in headwater streams of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Hydrobiologia 745, 1–15 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-014-2067-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-014-2067-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation