Abstract
Petroleum and natural gas are the primary fuels in the US food system. Both fuels are now in short supply and significant quantities are being imported into the USA from various nations. An investigation documented that fossil energy use in the food system could be reduced by about 50% by appropriate technology changes in food production, processing, packaging, transportation, and consumption. The results suggest that overall, farmers benefit as well as consumers.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abernethy, V. D. (2006). Census Bureau Distortions Hide Immigration Crisis: Real Numbers Much Higher. Press Report. Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. Nashville, TN.
American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) (2000). Wind Energy: The Fuel Of The Future Is Ready Today. (February 10, 2002; http://www.awea.org/pubs/factsheets/wetday.pdf).
Amity Technology (2007). Harvesters (March 31, 2007; http://www/amitytech.com.harvesters/6and8row.php).
Batty, J. C., and Keller, J. (1980). Energy requirements for irrigation. In Pimentel, D. (ed.), Handbook of Energy Utilization in Agriculture. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 35–44.
Block, G. (2004). Foods Contributing to Energy Intake in the U.S. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 17: 3–4439–447.
Bowers, D. E. (2000). A Century of Change in America’s Eating Patterns. Cooking Trends Echo Changing Roles of Women. Food Review 23: 123–29.
Brees, M. (2004). Corn Silage Budgets for Northern, Central and Southwest Missouri. (September 1, 2004; http://www.agebb.missouri.edu/mgt/budget/fbm-0201.pdf).
Carter, M. (2002). Soil Quality for Sustainable Land Management: Organic Matter and Aggregation Interactions that Maintain Soil Function. Agronomy Journal 94: 38–47.
Center for Disease Control (CDC) (2002). Food Borne Infections (December 28, 2006; http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dmb/diseaseinfo/foodborneinfections_g.htm).
Coelho, R. (2006). Some Corny Facts. Monday, October 23, 2006. Page 1 C. The Ithaca Journal. Ithaca, NY.
Colenso, M. (2008). How Locavores work. http://people.howstuffworks.com/locavore.htm (7/5/08).
Deffeyes, K. S. (2001). Hubbert’s Peak. The Impending World Oil Shortage. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, Oxford.
De La Torre Ugarte, D. G., Walsh, M. E., Shapouri, H., and Slinsky, S. P. (2000). The Economic Impacts of Bioenergy Crop Production on U.S. Agriculture. University of Tenessee APAC, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USDA-Office of Energy Policy and New Uses.
Delgado, J. A., Koshla, R., Bausch, W. C., Westfall, D. G., and Inman, D. J. (2005). Nitrogen Fertilizer Management Zones Reduces Potential for Nitrate Leaching. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 60: 402–410.
Department of Energy (DOE) (2007). Industrial Heat Pumps Improve Plant Efficiency and Recover Waste Energy Resources. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 1993. Envirosense (April 4, 2007; http://es.epa.gov/techinfo/facts/pumps.html).
Drinkwater, L., Wagoner, P., and Sarrantonio, M. (1998). Legume-Based Cropping Systems have Reduced Carbon and Nitrogen Losses. Nature 396: 262–265.
Duncan, R. C., and Youngquist, W. (1999). Encircling the Peak of World Oil Production. Natural Resources Research 8: 3219–232.
Easton Consultants, Inc. (1995). Strategies to Promote Energy-Efficient Motor Systems in North America’s OEM Markets. Easton Consultants, Stamford, CT.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1976). Evaluating Economic Impacts of Programs for Control of Saline Irrigation Return Flows: A Case Study of the Grand Valley, Colorado. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, CO.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1992). Hired Farm Workers Health and Well-Being at Risk. US General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Requesters.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2001). Green Lights Program (Currently Part of the ENERGY STAR Program; October 19, 2006; http://www.epa.gov/region07/specinit/p2/volprog/grnliight.htm).
Epplin, F. M., Stock, C. J., Kletke, D. D., and Peeper, T. F. (2005). Economics of Size for Conventional Tillage and No-Till Wheat Production. Presented at the Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Little Rock, AR, February 6–9.
Feeding the World (2002). Feeding the World (November 19, 2006; http://www/abc.net.au/rn/science/earth/stories/s611400.htm).
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2006). The Use of Saline Waters for Crop Production. FAO Corporate Documentary Repository. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Data Base (FAOSTAT) (1961–2005). World Cereal Grain Production. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Data Base (FAOSTAT) (2004). Food Balance Sheets. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome (December 15, 2006; http://faostat.fao.org/site/554/default.aspx).
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2007). Nutrition Facts to Help Consumers Eat Smart. US Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC (April 8, 2007; http://www.fda.gov/FDAC/special/foodlabel/facts.html).
Fritzson, A. (2005). Energy Efficiency in the Meat Processing Industry: Opportunities for Process Integration. Thesis for the Degree of Licentiate of Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology. (September 7, 2007; http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/cpl/record/index.xsql?pubid=22199)
Funderburg, E. (2001). Why are Nitrogen Prices so High? Pasture & Range: April 2001. (November 5, 2006; http://www.noble.org/Ag/soils/NitrogenPrices/Index.html).
Galitsky, C., Worrel, E., and Ruth, M. (2003). Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for Corn Wet Milling Industry: An ENERGY STAR Guide for Energy and Plant Managers. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and US Environmental Protection Agency.
General Accounting Office (GAO) (2003). Natural Gas. Domestic Nitrogen Fertilizer Production Depends on Natural Gas Availability and Prices. US General Accounting Office, Washington, DC.
Gerbens-Leenes, P. W., Nonhebela, S., and Ivens, W. P. M. F. (2002). A Method to Determine Land Requirements Relating to Food Consumption Patterns. Agriculture, Ecosystems and the Environment 90: 147–58.
Griffin, T., Liebman, M., and Jemison, J. (2000). Cover Crops for Sweet Corn Production in a Short-Season Environment. Agronomy Journal 92: 144–151.
Grisso, R., and Pitman, R. (2001). Gearing Up and Throttle Down—Saving Fuel. October 25, 2006; http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/bse/442–450/442–450.pdf.
Hayden, H. C. (2001). The Solar Fraud: Why Solar Energy Won’t Run the World. Vales Lake Publishing, LLC, Pueblo West, CO.
Henao, J., and Baanante, C. (2006). Agricultural Production and Soil Nutrient Mining in Africa: Implications for Resource Conservation and Policy Development. An International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.
Hoffert, M. I., Caldeira, K., Benford, G., Criswell, D. R., Green, C., Herzog, H., Jain, A. K., Kheshgi, H. S., Lackner, K. S., Lewis, J. S., Lightfoot, H. D., Manheimer, W., Markins, J. C., Mauel, M. E., Perkins, L. J., Schlesinger, M. E., Volk, T., and Wigley, T. M. L. (2002). Advanced Technology Paths to Global Climate Stability: Energy for a Greenhouse Planet. Science 298: 981–987.
Hoffman, T. R., Warnock, W. D., and Hinman, H. R. (1994). Crop Enterprise Budgets, Timothy-Legume and Alfalfa Hay, Sudan Grass, Sweet Corn and Spring Wheat Under Rill Irrigation, Kittitas County, Washington. Farm Business Reports EB 1173, Pullman, Washington State University.
Holm, L., and Kildevang, H. (1996). Consumers’ Views on Food Quality. A Qualitative Interview Study. Appetite 27: 1–14.
Horrigan, L., Lawrence, R. S., and Walker, P. (2002). How Sustainable Agriculture can Address the Environmental and Human Health Harms of Industrial Agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives 110: 5445–456.
Kuchler, F., Tegen, A., and Harris, J. M. (2004). Taxing Snack Foods: What to Expect for Diet and Tax Revenues. Economic Research Service, USDA, Washington, DC 11 pages.
Larsen, K., Thompson, D., and Harn, A. (2002). Limited and Full Irrigation Comparison for Corn and Grain Sorghum. (September 2, 2002; http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/SoilCrop/extension/Newsletters/2003/Drought/sorghum.html).
Larson, W. E., and Cardwell, V. B. (1999). History of U.S. Corn Production. (September 2, 2004; http://citv.unl.edu/cornpro/html/history/history.html).
Lazarus, W., and Selley, R. (2005). Farm Machinery Economic Cost Estimates for Late 2005. University of Minnesota Extension Service. College of Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Sciences.
Mattsson, B., and Sonesson, U. (2003). Environmentally-Friendly Food Processing. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK.
McLaughlin, S. B., De la Torregaurte, D. G., Garten, D. G., Lynd, L. R., Sanderson, M. A., Tolbert, V. R., and Wolf, D. D. (2002). High-value Renewable Energy from Prairie Grasses. Environmental Science Technology 36: 2122–2129.
Minnesota (2007). Soil Compaction: Causes, Effects, and Controls. March 31. 2007; http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystem/components/3115s02.html.
Morrison, F. B. (1946). Feeds and Feeding: A Handbook for the Student and Stockman. The Morrison, Ithaca, NY.
Murray, D. (2005). Oil and Food: A Rising Security Challenge. Earth Policy Institute. (January 22, 2007; http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update48.htm).
National Academy of Sciences (NAS) (1989). Alterative Agriculture. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) (2003). National Agricultural Statistics Service. (October 9, 2005; http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu).
Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES) (2004). Manure Characteristics. (April 20, 2007; http://www.nraes.org/nra_order.taf?_function=detail&pr_id=88&_UserReference=9F83B8273CC7F1784628E275).
Pagan, R., and Lake, M. (2000). A Whole Life Approach to Sustainable Food Production. Industry and Environment Review 22: 13–17.
Parsch, L. D., Keisling, T. C., Sauer, P. A., Oliver, L. R., and Crabtree, N. S. (2001). Economic Analysis of Conservation and Conventional Tillage Cropping Systems on Clayey Soil in Eastern Arkansas. Agronomy Journal 93: 1296–1304.
Patzek, T. (2004). Thermodynamics of the Corn-ethanol Biofuel Cycle. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 23: 6519–567.
Pimentel, D. (1980). Handbook of Energy Utilization in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Pimentel, D. (2004). Livestock production and energy use. In Matsumura, R. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Energy. Elsevier, San Diego, CA, pp. 671–676.
Pimentel, D. (2006a). Soil Erosion: A Food and Environmental Threat. Environment, Development and Sustainability 8: 1119–137.
Pimentel, D. (2006b). Impacts of organic farming on the efficiency of energy use in agriculture. An Organic Center State of Science Review. August 2006. (April 20, 2007; http://www.organic-center.org/science.pest.php?action=view&report_id=59).
Pimentel, D. (2008). Renewable and solar energy: economic and wildlife conservation aspects. Paper in draft form and submitted to Gates, E. (ed.) Peak oil, economic growth, and wildlife conservation.
Pimentel, D., and Ali, M. S. (1998). An economic and environmental assessment of herbicide-resistant and insect/pest-resistant crops. Indian Journal of Applied Economics 7: 2241–252.
Pimentel, D., and Patzek, T. (2005). Ethanol production using corn, switchgrass, and wood; biodiesel production using soybean and sunflower. Natural Resources and Research 14: 165–76.
Pimentel, D., and Patzek, T. (2007). Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood and Biodiesel Production Using Soybean. Plants for Renewable Energy. Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY in press.
Pimentel, D., and Pimentel, M. (1996). Food, Energy and Society. Colorado Univ. Press, Niwot, CO.
Pimentel, D., and Pimentel, M. (2006). Global Environmental Resources Versus World Population Growth. Ecological Economics 59: 2006195–198.
Pimentel, D., and Pimentel, M. (2008). Food, Energy and Society, 3rd edn., CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group), Boca Raton, FL 380 pp.
Pimentel, D., and Wen, D. (2004). Agriculture in China: world population, food and environment. In Tso, T. C. (ed.), Dare to Dream: Vision of 2050 Agriculture in China. China Agriculture University Press, Beijing, China, pp. 103–116.
Pimentel, D., and Wilson, A. (2004). World Population, Agriculture, and Malnutrition. World Watch September/October: 22–25.
Pimentel, D., McLaughlin, L., Zepp, A., Lakitan, B., Kraus, T., Kleinman, P., Vancini, F., Roach, W. J., Grapp, E., Keeton, W. S., and Selig, G. (1993). Environmental and Economic Effects of Reducing Pesticide Use in Agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 46: 1–4273–288.
Pimentel, D., Herz, M., Glickstein, M., Zimmerman, R., Allen, K., Becker, J., Evans, B., Hussain, R., Sarsfield, A., Grosfeld, A., and Seidel, T. (2002a). Renewable Energy: Current and Potential Issues. BioScience 52: 121111–1120.
Pimentel, D., Doughty, R., Carothers, C., Lamberson, S., Bora, N., and Lee, K. (2002b). Energy inputs in crop production: comparison of developed and developing countries. In Lal, L., Hansen, D., Uphoff, N., and Slack, S. (eds.), Food Security and Environmental Quality in the Developing World. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 129–151.
Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M., Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, B., Clark, S., Poon, E., Albert, E., and Nandagopal, S. (2004). Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. BioScience 54: 10909–918.
Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D., and Seidel, R. (2005). Environmental, Energetic and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems. BioScience 55: 7573–582.
Pimentel, D., Rochon, E., Gardner, J., Horan, C., Garcia, X., Grufferman, J., Walling, E., Schlenker, J., and Bonnifield, A. (2008). Energy Efficiency and Conservation for individual Americans.Environment Development and Sustainability (in press).
Population Reference Bureau (PRB) (2006). Population Chart. Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC.
Postel, S. (1997). Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. Norton, New York.
Preiser, R. F. (2005). Living Within our Environmental Means. Natural Resources and an Optimum Human Population. (November 5, 2006; http:://dieoff.org/pages50.htm.)
Putman, J., Allshouse, J., and Kantor, L. S. (2002). U.S. Per Capita Food Supply Trends: More Calories, Refined Carbohydrate, and Fats. Food Review, Vol. 25, Issue 3. Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture.
Queensland Government (2007). Energy and Food Processing. (June 7, 2007; http://www.sd.qld.gov.au/dsdweb/v3/guis/templates/content/gui_cue_cntnhtml.cfm?id=2237).
Refsgaar, K., Halberg, N., and Kristensen, N. (1998). Energy Utilization in Crop and Dairy Production in Organic and Conventional Livestock Production Systems. Agricultural Systems 57: 599–630.
Ryder, E. J. (1980). Lettuce. In Pimentel, D. (ed.), Handbook of Energy Utilization in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 191–194.
Schmalshof, T. (2005). Testimony. National Corn Growers Association. Before the House Subcommittees on Energy and Mineral Resources. May 19, 2005, Washington, DC.
Shottenkirk, J. (2005). The Journal Record. Okalahoma City, OK. November 30, 2005.
Sims, R. E. H., Rogner, H.-H., and Gregory, K. (2003). Carbon Emission and Mitigation Cost Comparisons Between Fossil Fuel, Nuclear and Renewable Energy Resources for Electricity Generation. Energy Policy 31: 20031315–1326.
SixWise (2006). All the Risks of Processed Foods—In Just a Few Quick, Convenient Bites. (January 26, 2007; http://www.sixwise.com/newsletters/05/10/19/processed.htm).
Sullivan, P. (2002). Drought Resistant Soil. Fayetteville (AR): Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas. (April 22, 2005; www.attra.org/attra.pub/pub/drought.pdf).
Troeh, F. R., Hobbs, J. A., and Donahue, R. L. (2004). Soil and Water Conservation for Productivity and Environmental Protection. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
US Census Bureau (USCB) (2004–2005). Statistical Abstracts of the United States. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
US Census Bureau (USCB) (2007). Statistical Abstracts of the United States. (March 21, 2008; http://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract.html).
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (1976). Nutritive Value of American Foods. Agricultural Handbook No. 456. Agricultural Research Service, Washington, DC.
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (1991). Corn-State. Costs of Production. Economic Research Service, Economics and Statistics System, Washington, DC Stock #94018.
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (1997a). 1997 Census of Agriculture. (August 28, 2002; http://www.ncfap.org).
US Department of Agriculture USDA) (1997b). Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (1998). 1997 Census of Agriculture. Volume 3, Special Studies, Part 1. 280 p.
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2002). Agricultural Statistics. US Department of Agriculture, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2004). Agricultural Statistics. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Vaclavik, V. A., Pimentel, M. H., and Devine, M. M. (2006). Dimensions of Food. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
Valentine, J. (2006). Soft Drinks: America’s Other Drinking Problem. (April 2, 2007; http://www.westonaprice.org/modernfood/soft.html).
Weinert, T., Pan, W., Moneymaker, M., Santo, G., and Stevens, R. (2002). Nitrogen recycling by nonleguminous winter cover crops to reduce leaching in potato rotation. Agronomy Journal 94: 365–372.
Wilcke B., and Chaplin J. (2000). Fuel Saving Ideas for Farmers. Minnesota/ Wisconsin Engineering Notes. (September 2, 2004; http://www.bae.umn.edu/extens/ennotes/enspr00/fuelsaving.htm).
Wilkinson, B. H., and McElroy, B. J. (2007). The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 119: 1140(September 7, 2007; http://www.gsajournals.org/archive/0016-7606/119/1/pdf/i0016-7606-119-1-140.pdf).
Williams, J. R., Roth, T. W., and Claassen, M. M. (2000). Profitability of Alternative Production and Tillage Strategies for Dryland Wheat and Grain Sorghum in the Central Great Plains. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 55: 49–56.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2005). Malnutrition Worldwide. (January 3, 2007; http://www.mikeschoice.com/reports/malnutrition_worldwide.htm).
Worldwatch Institute (2001). Vital Signs 2001. Norton, New York.
Xenergy (1998). United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment. US Department of Energy Office of Industrial Technology, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Massachusetts, 1998.
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the Cornell Association of Professors Emeriti for the partial support of our research through the Albert Podell Grant Program.
We also wish to thank the following people for their helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper: Piero Conforti, Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy; Faye Duchin, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY; Andrew Ferguson, Optimum Population Trust, Manchester, UK; Richard B. Ferguson, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE; P.W. Gerbens-Leenes, University of Twente, The Netherlands; Rattan Lal, President, Soil Science Society of America, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH; Marguerite Renouf, University of Queensland, QLD, Au; Jaap Schroder, Plant Research International, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pimentel, D., Williamson, S., Alexander, C.E. et al. Reducing Energy Inputs in the US Food System. Hum Ecol 36, 459–471 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-008-9184-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-008-9184-3