Abstract
Drawing on a review of international higher education (IHE) policies, priorities, and literature from the USA, Canada, Australia, and the UK over the course of a 16-year period (2000–2016), this article identifies a strong scholarly and policy preoccupation with the urgency of the global knowledge economy and cognate discourses of ‘Asia Pacific century’, an emerging economic and geopolitical configuration that is considered threatening to the historic and ideological Western superiority in IHE relations. As such, the export commodification and transnationalization of higher education of the last decade is conceptualized as Western responses to an increasingly Asia-driven global economic order. This, we suggest, is an analytical lens which approaches time—as in knowledge economic time—and space—as in the West and Asia—in rather absolute, contained, and hierarchized terms, overlooking how both the West’s coming to terms with postcolonial Asia, and the postcolonial Asian states’ desire for Western knowledge and modernity re-cast broader transnational inequities established by colonial practices. In contrast, the concept of ‘spacetime entanglement’ is proposed to develop a necessary analysis as well as a critique of the transnationalization of capitalist colonial relations via discourses and practices of contemporary IHE.
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Notes
This is not to disregard other emerging markets, e.g. the CIVETS block (Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, and South Africa), which too are very much on the policy purview of the traditional destination states. India and China, however, continue to be referenced in policy and academic literature as the key foci due to the size of their middle class markets and significantly larger youth populations of postsecondary age. This and the fact that these two Asian countries fare prominently in recent Western IHE and foreign policy engagement with Asia made us focus on India and China while acknowledging the limits of doing so. By focusing on West’s historic and contemporary relationship with Asia within a framework of colonial entanglement, we also do not want to minimize, e.g., India and China’s growing control over Arab and African higher education markets although we keep that dynamics outside of the scope of this essay.
We are conscious of the limits of the geopolitical categories of the ‘West’ and ‘Asia’ as used here. Apart from being political ideological constructs, such usage erases specificities within and between West and Asia. Yet, for the time being, we are keen on drawing attention to historical and temporal patterns in policy and scholarly debates on IHE.
In making this claim, we acknowledge our empirical reliance on policy materials between 2000 and 2016. In recent years, new grounds have been charted in at least two new ways: First, research on intra-Asian mobilities has extended the focus on European and North American student and educational mobilities, and secondly, discourses of ‘Rising Asia’ has been placed within many contradictory and complementary forces of postcolonial nation building, regional aspirations and material, and affective labour geographies (see Sidhu et al. 2020; Peidong 2018 etc.).
In drawing primarily from Barad and a range of postcolonial scholars, we are thoughtful of the conceptual contributions of Marxist, New Marxist, and Cultural Studies scholars to notions of time and space. We acknowledge the various inter- and cross-disciplinary conversations on time and space that have contributed to scholarly understanding of these as rather fluid, interdependent, and contingent instead of epochal, independent, and linear. Our aim is not to exhaustively engage these insights, rather to work with a theoretical frame of time/space that would allow us to challenge current IHE understanding of knowledge economic time and thereby to make the shift from a simple victim/perpetrator narrative to a more complex understanding of the conditions under which Western education can continue to be sold as desirable.
Since the completion of this paper, one of us, for example, served on a strategic internationalizing planning committee of the university we work at. The number of such strategic frameworks has been on the rise, and currently, it is safe to say it is a phenomenon cutting across postsecondary institutions across the Western world.
Barad’s indebtedness to feminist theorizing is obvious in her works we engage with here and her unique contribution is in bridging the inconceivable difference between quantum physics and feminism, which is not only a disciplinary leap but also one that helps us articulate the contemporary IHE site as one generated from within itself and also as tied to its historic trajectory in ways that cannot be disentangled.
Rhee and Sagaria did an exhaustive review of articles published in the Chronicle of Higher Education between 1996 and 1999 to show international students as both instruments of and at the receiving end of US imperialism. In Making the world like us (with what appears to be an invitation to read ‘us’ as US), Liping Bu (2012) studied American religious, and secular democratic institutions’ active role in educating the world about American culture.
Pang studied the impact of ‘Asia literacy’ primarily on the fiscal policy and secondary education level. While he does not explicitly engage with the higher education/postsecondary system, his analysis can be extended to the postsecondary site which also is driven by economic anxieties.
In 2014, the country’s department of foreign affairs and trade launched a programme for Australian undergrads, for those 18–28 and some 28+, to study abroad in the Indo-Pacific region (see http://dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/new-colombo-plan/about/Pages/about.aspx). Driven by the anxieties of the spectre of Asia rising, Australia considered modifying even its entire primary and secondary school curricula to focus heavily on the acquisition of ‘at least one priority Asian language’, which are Chinese (Mandarin), Hindi, Indonesian, and Japanese (Australian Government 2012, p. 16). The impetus for this change was for ‘[e]very Australian student [to] have significant exposure to studies of Asia across the curriculum to increase their cultural knowledge and skills and enable them to be active in the region’ (Australian Government 2012, p. 15). Reports however suggest that many of these changes were never implemented and that the ambitious programme outlined in the white paper has yet to be realized (Harrington 2012, p. 3).
Similar US initiatives were launched for Latin America and Caribbean in 2011.
This characterization involves glossing over the highly complex history of various countries and communities in the continent and their diverse colonial history. The aim of the essay currently is to draw attention to broad patterns. Historical and national level specificities will guide later works.
And this is partly also why, we think, Dipesh Chakraborty (1992, p. 22) eventually argued that the institutional site of the university cannot engage the important work of ‘provincializing Europe’ (or as Mignolo would say, ‘displacing Europe’), since ‘its knowledge protocols … take us back to the terrain where all contours follow that of … hyperreal Europe’. The alternatives for academics located in Western academia and tasked with the daily struggles of speaking back are matter for another time and venue.
However, the analysis also shows the emergence of new origins countries such as Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and Cameroon and some Western origin countries such as France, Canada, and the USA, which, we suggest, deserves careful examination.
While this sounds a rather binaristic take on a highly complex transformation of power globally, our aim is this essay, as mentioned before, is not to establish specific and exhaustive details but to trouble the lens on IHE that allows a rather sharp cut from earlier colonial relations and later management of postcolonial geopolitics.
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Chatterjee, S., Barber, K. Between ‘here-now’ and ‘there-then’: the West and Asia’s colonial entanglements in international higher education. High Educ 81, 221–239 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00538-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00538-x