Skip to main content

Relationships between learning approach, procrastination and academic achievement amongst first-year university students

Higher Education volume 74, pages 757–774 (2017)Cite this article

Abstract

Individual differences in student learning influence academic performance, and two aspects influencing the learning process are the particular learning approach the students use and procrastination behaviour. We examined the relationships between learning approaches, procrastination and academic achievement (measured 1 year later as the grade point average (GPA)) amongst 428 first-year university students. Deep and strategic learning approaches positively predicted GPA, and a mediation analysis showed that the strategic learning approach also partly mediated the effect between deep learning approach and GPA. Less procrastination was associated with a strategic learning approach, but procrastination tendencies did not predict GPA. Recommendations are made for educating new students in cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, helping reduce their procrastination and facilitating the use of deep and strategic learning approaches.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Education & Psychology, 84(3), 261–271. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baeten, M., Kyndt, E., Struyven, K., & Dochy, F. (2010). Using student-centred learning environments to stimulate deep approaches to learning: factors encouraging or discouraging their effectiveness. Educational Research Review, 5(3), 243–260. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balkis, M. (2013). Academic procrastination, academic life satisfaction and academic achievement: the mediation role of rational beliefs about studying. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 13(1), 57–74. doi:10.1007/sl0942-012-0152-x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2015). Integrating the regulation of affect, behavior, and cognition into self-regulated learning paradigms among secondary and post-secondary students. Metacognition and Learning, 10(1), 15–42. doi:10.1007/s11409-014-9129-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, J. (1979). Individual differences in study processes and the quality of learning outcomes. Higher Education, 8(4), 381–394. doi:10.2307/3446151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, L. (2012). Examining ‘active’ procrastination from a self-regulated learning perspective. Educational Psychologist, 32(4), 515–545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 111–126. doi:10.1196/annals.1440.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, N. J: Laurence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, T. I. (1993). Enhancing motivation and competence with goal harmony. Trondheim: Norwegian Institute of Adult Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: a meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76–99. doi:10.1177/1088868311418749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diseth, Å. (2001). Validation of a Norwegian version of the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST): application of structural equation modelling. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 45(4), 381–394. doi:10.1080/00313830120096789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diseth, Å. (2007). Approaches to learning, course experience and examination grade among undergraduate psychology students: testing of mediator effects and construct validity. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3), 373–388. doi:10.1080/03075070701346949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • English, L., Luckett, P., & Mladenovic, R. (2004). Encouraging a deep approach to learning through curriculum design. Accounting Education, 13(4), 461–488. doi:10.1080/0963928042000306828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Entwistle, N. (1997). Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST). Edinburgh: Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction, University of Edinburgh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entwistle, N., Hanley, M., & Hounsell, D. (1979). Identifying distinctive approaches to studying. Higher Education, 8(4), 365–380. doi:10.1007/BF01680525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esch, P., Bocquet, V., Pull, C., Couffignal, S., Lehnert, T., Graas, M., et al. (2014). The downward spiral of mental disorders and educational attainment: a systematic review on early school leaving. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 237. doi:10.1186/s12888-014-0237-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, J. R. (2001). Procrastination as self-regulation failure of performance: effects of cognitive load, self-awareness, and time limits on ‘working best under pressure’. European Journal of Personality, 15(5), 391–406. doi:10.1002/per.413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., et al. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(23), 8410–8415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garner, J. K. (2009). Conceptualizing the relations between executive functions and self-regulated learning. The Journal of Psychology, 143(4), 405–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goda, Y., Yamada, M., Kato, H., Matsuda, T., Saito, Y., & Miyagawa, H. (2015). Procrastination and other learning behavioral types in e-learning and their relationship with learning outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 72–80. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregg, N. (2007). Underserved and unprepared: postsecondary learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 22(4), 219–228. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00250.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haas, S. A., & Fosse, N. E. (2008). Health and the educational attainment of adolescents: evidence from the NLSY97. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(2), 178–192. doi:10.1177/002214650804900205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M., Ramsay, A., & Raven, J. (2004). Changing the learning environment to promote deep learning approaches in first-year accounting students. Accounting Education, 13(4), 489–505. doi:10.1080/0963928042000306837.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hattie, J. (2011). Which strategies best enhance teaching and learning in higher education? In D. Mashek & E. Y. Hammer (Eds.), Empirical research in teaching and learning (pp. 130–142). Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach (methodology in the social sciences). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, M., Kuhnle, C., Kilian, B., & Fries, S. (2012). Cognitive ability and personality variables as predictors of school grades and test scores in adolescents. Learning and Instruction, 22(5), 368–375. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howell, A. J., & Watson, D. C. (2007). Procrastination: associations with achievement goal orientation and learning strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(1), 167–178. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M. (2009). Understanding links between adolescent health and educational attainment. Demography, 46(4), 671–694. doi:10.1353/dem.0.0078.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, J. R., Silvestri, R., Allingham, B. H., Parrila, R., & La Fave, C. B. (2008). Learning strategies and study approaches of postsecondary students with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 85–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klingsieck, K. B., Fries, S., Horz, C., & Hofer, M. (2012). Procrastination in a distance university setting. Distance Education, 33(3), 295–310. doi:10.1080/01587919.2012.723165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, T. R., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Krames, L., & Szanto, G. (1996). Personality correlates of depression and health symptoms: a test of a self-regulation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 30(2), 264–277. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1996.0017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F. (1976). On non-verbatim learning: II. The erosion effect of a task-induced learning algorithm. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 17(1), 41–48. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1976.tb00209.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976a). On qualitative differences in learning: II—outcome as a function of the learner’s conception of the task. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(2), 115–127. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02304.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976b). On qualitative differences in learning: I—outcome and process. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(1), 4–11. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naglieri, J. A., & Bornstein, B. T. (2003). Intelligence and achievement: just how correlated are they? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 21(3), 244–260. doi:10.1177/073428290302100302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, L. S., & Crowley, C. M. (1995). Can students be helped to learn how to learn? An evaluation of an approaches to learning programme for first year degree students. Higher Education, 29(3), 307–328. doi:10.1007/BF01384496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, M. E., & Graeff, T. R. (2014). Using an in-class simulation in the first accounting class: moving from surface to deep learning. The Journal of Education for Business, 89(5), 241–247. doi:10.1080/08832323.2013.863751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pychyl, T. A., Lee, J. M., Thibodeau, R., & Blunt, A. (2000). Five days of emotion: an experience sampling study of undergraduate student procrastination. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 239–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsden, P. (1979). Student learning and perceptions of the academic environment. Higher Education, 8(4), 411–427. doi:10.1007/BF01680529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsden, P. (1991). Learning to teach in higher education. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, M., & Abraham, C. (2009). Conscientiousness and achievement motivation predict performance. European Journal of Personality, 23(7), 589–605. doi:10.1002/per.732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. doi:10.1037/a0026838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, S. B., Lauver, K., Le, H., Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill, factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 261–288. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, P. L., & Clarke, R. L. (1998). Meta-analyzing the relation between grades and salary. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 53(3), 386–400. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1997.1621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, P. L., BeVier, C. A., Switzer III, F. S., & Schippmann, J. S. (1996). Meta-analyzing the relationship between grades and job performance. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(5), 548–556. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.5.548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sæle, R. G., Sørlie, T., Nergård-Nilssen, T., Ottosen, K.-O., Goll, C. B., & Friborg, O. (2015). Demographic and psychological predictors of grade point average (GPA) in North-Norway: a particular analysis of cognitive/school-related and literacy problems. Educational Psychology, 1–22. doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.998630.

  • Salmela-Aro, K., & Tynkkynen, L. (2010). Trajectories of life satisfaction across the transition to post-compulsory education: do adolescents follow different pathways? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(8), 870–881.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schouwenburg, H. C. (2004). Counseling the procrastinator in academic settings. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Norway. (2015). Population’s level of education, 1 October 2014.

  • Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steel, P. (2010). Arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastinators: do they exist? Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 926–934. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steel, P. (2011). The procrastination equation: how to stop putting things off and start getting things done. Harlow: Prentice Hall Life.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stober, J., & Joormann, J. (2001). Worry, procrastination, and perfectionism: differentiating amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety, and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(1), 49–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stormark, K., Heiervang, E., Heimann, M., Lundervold, A., & Gillberg, C. (2008). Predicting nonresponse bias from teacher ratings of mental health problems in primary school children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 411–419. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9187-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svartdal, F. (2015). Measuring procrastination: psychometric properties of the Norwegian versions of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS). Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1–13. doi:10.1080/00313831.2015.1066439.

  • Tait, H., & Entwistle, N. (1996). Identifying students at risk through ineffective study strategies. Higher Education, 31(1), 97–116. doi:10.2307/3447710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 271–324. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress, and health: the costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological Science, 8(6), 454–458. doi:10.2307/40063233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., & Taylor, P. (1994). Qualitative differences in approaches to teaching first year university science. Higher Education, 27(1), 75–84. doi:10.1007/bf01383761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, C.-J., Konold, T. R., & McDermott, P. A. (2004). Does learning behavior augment cognitive ability as an indicator of academic achievement? Journal of School Psychology, 42, 157–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: which are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11(4), 307–313. doi:10.1016/0361-476X(86)90027-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

    Rannveig Grøm Sæle, Tove Irene Dahl & Oddgeir Friborg

  2. Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

    Tore Sørlie

  3. Department of General Psychiatry, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway

    Tore Sørlie

Authors
  1. Rannveig Grøm Sæle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tove Irene Dahl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tore Sørlie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Oddgeir Friborg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rannveig Grøm Sæle.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sæle, R.G., Dahl, T.I., Sørlie, T. et al. Relationships between learning approach, procrastination and academic achievement amongst first-year university students. High Educ 74, 757–774 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0075-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0075-z

Keywords

  • Learning approach
  • Procrastination
  • Academic achievement
  • GPA