Abstract
In earthquakes, foundations of structures may encounter damages due to faulting. To address this issue, numerous innovative mitigation methods have been introduced. Among these, an efficient solution involves constructing a trench wall filled with a material capable of not only absorbing the faulting energy but also diverting the propagation route of fault rupture. In this research, a novel material called closed-cell aluminum foam (CCAF) is introduced to be implemented within the trench wall considering its noticeable energy absorbing and flexibility. To evaluate the performance of the trench wall filled with CCAF [or Aluminum Foam Wall (AFW)] under fault rupture conditions, ABAQUS, a Finite Element Method software, is employed for numerical analyses and the obtained results are validated against centrifuge experimental data for both free field and shallow foundation’s presence conditions. Based on the findings, the application of AFW resulted in a substantial reduction in the rotation degree of the shallow foundation. In one case, it experienced a significant decrease from 11.64° to a mere 0.48°. Furthermore, when compared to alternative mitigation methods such as Smart Wall Barrier (SWB) or Soil Bentonite Wall (SBW), AFW exhibited superior performance under identical conditions. In similar conditions, AFW achieved a remarkable rotation degree of 0.06°, while SWB and SBW registered rotation degrees of 0.4° and 0.2°, respectively. The obtained results indicate that AFW demonstrates a promising ability to efficiently absorb faulting energy and divert the propagation of fault rupture.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Ahmed W, Bransby MF (2009) Interaction of shallow foundations with reverse faults. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(7):914–924. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000072
Alizadeh M, Khodaparast M, Rajabi AM (2021) Simulation of the interaction of micropiles and a fault rupture. KSCE J Civ Eng 25(12):4620–4630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-021-0068-z
Anastasopoulos I, Gazetas G (2007) Foundation–structure systems over a rupturing normal fault: part II. Analysis of the Kocaeli case histories. Bull Earthq Eng 5:277–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-007-9030-9
Anastasopoulos I, Jones L (2019) On the development of novel mitigation techniques against faulting–induced deformation:“Smart” barriers and sacrificial members. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 124:297–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.052
Anastasopoulos I, Gazetas G, Bransby MF, Davies MCR, El Nahas A (2007) Fault rupture propagation through sand: finite-element analysis and validation through centrifuge experiments. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 133(8):943–958. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:8(943)
Anastasopoulos I, Callerio A, Bransby MF, Davies MCR, Nahas AE, Faccioli E, Gazetas G, Masella A, Paolucci R, Pecker A, Rossignol E (2008) Numerical analyses of fault–foundation interaction. Bull Earthq Eng 6:645–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-008-9078-1
Anastasopoulos I, Gazetas G, Bransby MF, Davies MC, El Nahas A (2009) Normal fault rupture interaction with strip foundations. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(3):359–370. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:3(359)
Anastasopoulos I, Antonakos G, Gazetas G (2010) Slab foundation subjected to thrust faulting in dry sand: parametric analysis and simplified design method. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 30(10):912–924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2010.04.002
Anato NJ, Assogba OC, Tang A, Diakité Y, Cho Mya D (2022) Numerical and statistical investigation of the performance of closed-cell aluminium foam as a seismic isolation layer for tunnel linings. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 26(14):7282–7306. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2021.1986138
Ashtiani M, Ghalandarzadeh A, Towhata I (2015) Centrifuge modeling of shallow embedded foundations subjected to reverse fault rupture. Can Geotech J 53(3):505–519. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0444
Ashtiani M, Ghalandarzadeh A, Mahdavi M, Hedayati M (2018) Centrifuge modeling of geotechnical mitigation measures for shallow foundations subjected to reverse faulting. Can Geotech J 55(8):1130–1143. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0093
Ashtiani M, Nowkandeh MJ, Kayhani A (2021) Numerical modeling of the interaction of normal fault and shallow embedded foundation. Bull Earthq Eng 19:4805–4832
Augarde CE, Lee SJ, Loukidis D (2021) Numerical modelling of large deformation problems in geotechnical engineering: a state-of-the-art review. Soils Found 61(6):1718–1735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2021.08.007
Baziar MH, Rashedi MM (2022) Use of V-shaped concrete element to mitigate foundation rotation for uncertain reverse faulting dip angle and discontinuity location. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 158:107287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2022.107287
Baziar MH, Nabizadeh A, Mehrabi R, Lee CJ, Hung WY (2016) Evaluation of underground tunnel response to reverse fault rupture using numerical approach. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 83:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.11.005
Baziar MH, Heidari Hasanaklou S, Saeedi Azizkandi A (2019) Evaluation of EPS wall effectiveness to mitigate shallow foundation deformation induced by reverse faulting. Bull Earthq Eng 17:3095–3117
Bransby MF, Davies MCR, El Nahas A, Nagaoka S (2008) Centrifuge modelling of reverse fault–foundation interaction. Bull Earthq Eng 6:607–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-008-9080-7
Bray JD, Seed RB, Seed HB (1994) Analysis of earthquake fault rupture propagation through cohesive soil. J Geotech Eng 120(3):562–580. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:3(562)
Dassault S (2016) Abaqus theory guide. Dassault Systemes, USA
Deshpande VS, Fleck NA (2000) Isotropic constitutive models for metallic foams. J Mech Phys Solids 48(6–7):1253–1283. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5096(99)00082-4
Fadaee M, Anastasopoulos I, Gazetas G, Jafari MK, Kamalian M (2013) Soil bentonite wall protects foundation from thrust faulting: analyses and experiment. Earthq Eng Eng Vib 12:473–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11803-013-0187-8
Fadaee M, Ezzatyazdi P, Anastasopoulos I, Gazetas G (2016) Mitigation of reverse faulting deformation using a soil bentonite wall: dimensional analysis, parametric study, design implications. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 89:248–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.04.007
Golestanipour M, Babakhani A, Zebarjad SM (2015) An investigation on the energy absorption of aluminum foam core sandwich panel via quasi-static perforation test. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Mech Eng 39:185–196. https://doi.org/10.22099/ijstm.2015.2998
Gudehus G, Nübel K (2004) Evolution of shear bands in sand. Geotechnique 54(3):187–201. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2004.54.3.187
Helwany S (2007) Applied soil mechanics with ABAQUS applications. Wiley
Huo H, Bobet A, Fernández G, Ramírez J (2005) Load transfer mechanisms between underground structure and surrounding ground: evaluation of the failure of the Daikai station. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 131(12):1522–1533. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:12(1522)
Katsirakis M, Tsompanakis Y, Psarropoulos PN (2022) A potential mitigation measure for the seismic distress of the circuit wall at the acropolis of athens. Geotech Geol Eng 40(6):3325–3341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-022-02108-7
Khajeh A, Jamshidi Chenari R, Payan M (2020) A review of the studies on soil–EPS composites: beads and blocks. Geotech Geol Eng 38:3363–3383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01252-2
Khanbabazadeh H, Mert AC (2023) Response of steel pipeline crossing strike-slip fault in clayey soils by nonlinear analysis method. Geomech Eng 34(4):409. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2023.34.4.409
Liang M, Li X, Lin Y, Zhang K, Lu F (2019) Dynamic compressive behaviors of two-layer graded aluminum foams under blast loading. Materials 12(9):1445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091445
Loli M, Anastasopoulos I, Bransby MF, Ahmed W, Gazetas G (2011) Caisson foundations subjected to reverse fault rupture: centrifuge testing and numerical analysis. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 137(10):914–925. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000512
Montanini R (2005) Measurement of strain rate sensitivity of aluminium foams for energy dissipation. Int J Mech Sci 47(1):26–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2004.12.007
Nalkiashari LA, Firouzeh SH, Payan M, Chenari RJ, Shafiee A (2022) Interaction of rigid shallow foundation with dip-slip normal fault rupture outcrop: effective parameters and retrofitting strategies. Comput Geotech 149:104866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2022.104866
Ni P, Moore ID, Take WA (2018) Numerical modeling of normal fault–pipeline interaction and comparison with centrifuge tests. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 105:127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.10.011
Novak N, Vesenjak M, Duarte I, Tanaka S, Hokamoto K, Krstulović-Opara L, Guo B, Chen P, Ren Z (2019) Compressive behaviour of closed-cell aluminium foam at different strain rates. Materials 12(24):4108. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12244108
Nowkandeh MJ, Ashtiani M (2023) Cushioned helical-piled raft systems to mitigate hazards associated with normal faulting. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 166:107773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2023.107773
Oettle NK, Bray JD (2013) Fault rupture propagation through previously ruptured soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 139(10):1637–1647. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000919
Sadra V, Ghalandarzadeh A, Ashtiani M (2020) Use of a trench adjacent to a shallow foundation as a mitigation measure for hazards associated with reverse faulting. Acta Geotech 15:3167–3182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-00950-8
Saeedi Azizkandi A, Baziar MH, Ghavami S, Hasanaklou SH (2021) Use of vertical and inclined walls to mitigate the interaction of reverse faulting and shallow foundations: centrifuge tests and numerical simulation. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 147(2):04020155. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002433
Su L, Liu H, Yao G, Zhang J (2019) Experimental study on the closed-cell aluminum foam shock absorption layer of a high-speed railway tunnel. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 119:331–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.01.012
Wood DM (2002) Some observations of volumetric instabilities in soils. Int J Solids Struct 39(13–14):3429–3449. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7683(02)00166-X
Yao C, Yan Q, Sun M, Dong W, Guo D (2020) Rigid diaphragm wall with a relief shelf to mitigate the deformations of soil and shallow foundations subjected to normal faulting. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 137:106264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106264
Yao C, Zhang Y, He C, Kang X, Yang W, Geng P, Wang T (2023) An anti-rotation shelf to mitigate the rotation of shield tunnels subjected to normal faulting. Comput Geotech 156:105297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2023.105297
Funding
This study received no external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
HA conceived of the presented idea and investigated specific aspects, manuscript writing and editing, and supervised this work’s findings. AT implemented and analyzed the model in software and provided the analysis of the results and the initial manuscript’s writing. AD contributed to the design and implementation of the research, the analysis of the results, and the manuscript’s writing and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Alielahi, H., Tavasoli, A. & Derakhshan, A. Exploring the Efficacy of Aluminum Foam as an Innovative Solution to Mitigate Surface Faulting Effects on Shallow Foundations: A Numerical Investigation. Geotech Geol Eng 42, 2475–2493 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02686-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02686-0