Abstract
Recent studies present the effects of freeze–thaw cycles (F–T) and porosity/cement ratio (η/Civ) on the strength and durability of chemically stabilized soils. However, the effects of η/Civ on strength and durability have not yet been studied for optimal conditions of compaction of silt-cement mixtures. Thus, this paper discusses the mechanical properties and durability of a chemically stabilized silt that undergoes freeze–thaw (F–T) cycles with rapid hardening Portland cement when molded in three compaction energies under optimal conditions (i.e. maximum dry density and optimum moisture content) using cement contents of 3–9% by weight. The results show a decrease in the split tensile and unconfined compressive strength of the mixtures when submitted to several F–T cycles, and an increase in the accumulated mass of loss (ALM) influenced directly by the η/Civ index. Freezing–thawing action may have weakened the effect of cement hydration products on filling in soil pores and bonding soil particles causing microcracks. The results also show that it is possible to establish a constant split tensile/compressive ratio of 0.16 regardless of the number of F–T cycles, the η/Civ index, and ALM. Nevertheless, the η/Civ index directly influenced the ALM, qu, qt, and also water absorbed by the capillary rise of all the samples. Finally, it was found mixtures that comply (in terms of durability at low temperatures and strength), requirements to be used in geotechnical constructions.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- D 50 :
-
Mean particle diameter
- D 10 :
-
Effective size
- C iv :
-
Volumetric cement content (expressed in relation to the total specimen volume)
- Biv :
-
Volumetric binder content
- Cc :
-
Coefficient of curvature
- Cu :
-
Uniformity coefficient
- q u :
-
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
- q t :
-
Splitting tensile strength (STS)
- ALM:
-
Accumulated loss of mass
- γd :
-
Dry unit weight
- η:
-
Porosity
- ω:
-
Moisture content
- R 2 :
-
Coefficient of determination
- S:
-
Dry mass of the soil
- SE:
-
Standard effort
- IE:
-
Intermediate effort
- ME:
-
Modified effort
- \(q_{u - norm}\) :
-
qu normalized (dimensionless)
- \(q_{t - norm}\) :
-
qt normalized (dimensionless)
- \({\text{A}}_{{\text{q}}}\) :
-
Empirical parameter
- NC:
-
Number of Freezing–thawing cycles
- CLM:
-
Characteristic loss of mass
- Aw :
-
Absorved water by capillary rise
References
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (2012). “Soil-cement—durability test by wetting and drying—test method.” NBR 1554, Rio do Janeiro, Brazil.
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (2016). "Soil-compaction testing." NBR 7182, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (2017). "Portland cement and other powdered materials - Determination of specific mass." NBR 16605–17, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (2011). "Mortar and concrete—Test method for splitting tensile strength of cylindrical specimens." NBR 7222, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (2007). "Mortar and concrete—Test method for compressive strength of cylindrical specimens." NBR 5739, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ABNT (1995). "Soils and rocks." NBR 6502, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
ASTM (1996) Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete specimens. ASTM C496–96. West Conshohocken, Philadelphia.
ASTM (2010) ASTM D4318-10 "Stardard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils." ASTM Int West Conshohocken, Pa
ASTM (2012a) Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using modified effort (2,700 kN-m/m3). ASTM D1557. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA
ASTM (2012b) Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (600 kN-m/m3). ASTM D698. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA
ASTM (2014) ASTM D 854 - 14 "Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer 1." ASTM Int West Conshohocken, Pa
ASTM (2015) Standard Test Methods for Wetting and Drying Compacted Soil–Cement Mixtures. ASTM D 559, West Conshohocken, Philadelphia.
ASTM (2016) Standard Test Methods for Freezing and Thawing Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures. ASTM D 560, West Conshohocken, Philadelphia.
ASTM (2017) ASTM D 2487 – 17e1 "Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)." ASTM Int West Conshohocken, Pa D5521-5:1–5. doi: 10.1520/D2487-17E01
ASTM D3080-11 (2011) "Standard test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained conditions." ASTM Int West Conshohocken, Pa
Baldovino JA (2018) Comportamento mecânico de um solo siltoso da formação geológica Guabirotuba tratado com cal em diferentes tempos de cura. Master thesis, Federal Univ. of Technology-Paraná (in Portuguese)
Baldovino JA, Moreira EB, Izzo RL, Rose JL (2018) Empirical relationships with unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength for the long term of a lime-treated silty soil. J Mater Civ Eng 30:6018008. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002378
Baldovino JA, Izzo RL, Pereira MD, Rocha ER, Rose JL, Bordignon VR (2020a) Equations controlling tensile and compressive strength ratio of sedimentary soil–cement mixtures under optimal compaction conditions. J Mater Civ Eng 32(1):04019320. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002973
Baldovino JA, Izzo RL, Rose JL, Avanci M (2020b) Geopolymers based on recycled glass powder for soil stabilization. Geotech Geol Eng 38:4013–4031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01274-w
Baldovino JA, Izzo RL, da Silva ER, Rose JL (2020c) Sustainable use of recycled-glass powder in soil stabilization. J Mater Civ Eng 32(5):04020080. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003081
Baldovino JA, Izzo RL, Feltrim F, Da Silva E (2020d) Experimental study on guabirotuba’s soil stabilization using extreme molding conditions. Geotech Geol Eng 38:2591–2607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-019-01171-x
Biswal DR, Sahoo UC, Dash SR (2018) Durability and shrinkage studies of cement stabilsed granular lateritic soils. Int J Pavement Eng. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1433830
Cheng L, Shahin MA, Mujah D (2017) Influence of key environmental conditions on microbially induced cementation for soil stabilization. J Geotech Geoenviron Engi 143(1):04016083. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001509
Consoli NC, Bellaver Corte M, Festugato L (2012) Key parameter for tensile and compressive strength of fibre-reinforced soil–lime mixtures. Geosynth Int 19:409–414. https://doi.org/10.1680/gein.12.00026
Consoli NC, da Silva AP, Nierwinski HP, Sosnoski J (2018a) Durability, strength, and stiffness of compacted gold tailings—cement mixes. Can Geotech J 55:486–494. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0391
Consoli NC, da Silva K, Filho S, Rivoire AB (2017a) Compacted clay-industrial wastes blends: long term performance under extreme freeze-thaw and wet-dry conditions. Appl Clay Sci 146:404–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.06.032
Consoli NC, da Silva Lopes L, Foppa D, Heineck KS (2009) Key parameters dictating strength of lime/cement-treated soils. Proc Inst Civ Eng Geotech Eng 162:111–118. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2009.162.2.111
Consoli NC, Foppa D, Festugato L, Heineck KS (2007) Key parameters for strength control of artificially cemented soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 133:197–205. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:2(197)
Consoli NC, Godoy VB, Rosenbach CMC, Peccin da Silva A (2018b) Effect of sodium chloride and fibre-reinforcement on the durability of sand–coal fly ash–lime mixes subjected to freeze–thaw cycles. Geotech Geol Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-0594-8
Consoli NC, Marques SFV, Floss MF, Festugato L (2017b) Broad-spectrum empirical correlation determining tensile and compressive strength of cement-bonded clean granular soils. J Mater Civ Eng 29:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001858
Consoli NC, Prietto PDM, da Silva Lopes L, Winter D (2014) Control factors for the long term compressive strength of lime treated sandy clay soil. Transp Geotech 1:129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2014.07.005
Consoli NC, Quiñonez RA, González LE, López RA (2016a) Influence of molding moisture content and porosity / cement index on stiffness, strength, and failure envelopes of artificially cemented fine-grained soils. J Mater Civ Eng 29:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001819
Consoli NC, Scheuermann HC, Godoy VB et al (2018c) Durability of RAP-industrial waste mixtures under severe climate conditions. Soils Rocks 41:149–156. https://doi.org/10.28927/SR.412149
Consoli NC, Scheuermann Filho HC, Godoy VB et al (2018d) Durability of reclaimed asphalt pavement–coal fly ash–carbide lime blends under severe environmental conditions. Road Mater Pavement Des. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2018.1506354
Consoli NC, Vaz Ferreira PM, Tang CS et al (2016b) A unique relationship determining strength of silty/clayey soils – Portland cement mixes. Soils Found 56:1082–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2016.11.011
Consoli NC, Winter D, Leon HB, Scheuermann Filho HC (2018e) Durability, strength, and stiffness of green stabilized sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 144:4018057. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001928
Corp of Engineers (1994). Soil stabilization for pavement. Department of the Army, the Navy, and the Air force, Washington, DC.
da Rocha CG, Consoli NC, Dalla Rosa Johann A (2014) Greening stabilized rammed earth: devising more sustainable dosages based on strength controlling equations. J Clean Prod 66:19–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.041
Daraei A, Herki BMA, Sherwani AFH, Zare S (2018) Slope stability in swelling soils using cement grout: a case study. Int J Geosynth Gr Eng 4:10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-018-0127-9
De Assis DF, Ramos AM, Rebello ERG (2018) Normais climatológicas do Brasil 1981–2010. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira 53(2):131–143
Ding M, Zhang F, Ling X, Lin B (2018) Effects of freeze-thaw cycles on mechanical properties of polypropylene Fiber and cement stabilized clay. Cold Reg Sci Technol 154:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.07.004
Faro VP, Schnaid F, Consoli NC (2018) Field tests of laterally loaded flexible piles in soil with top cement-treated layers. Proc Inst Civ Eng Gr Improv 171:174–182. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgrim.17.00048
Festugato L, Menger E, Benezra F et al (2017) Fibre-reinforced cemented soils compressive and tensile strength assessment as a function of filament length. Geotext Geomembr 45:77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2016.09.001
Güllü H (2015) Unconfined compressive strength and freeze–thaw resistance of fine-grained soil stabilised with bottom ash, lime and superplasticiser. Road Mater Pavement Des 16:608–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2015.1021369
Gupta C, Prasad A (2018) Strength and durability of lime-treated jarosite waste exposed to freeze and thaw. J Cold Reg Eng 32:4017025. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000154
Han C, Cheng P (2015) Micropore variation and particle fractal representation of lime-stabilised subgrade soil under freeze–thaw cycles. Road Mater Pavement Des 16:19–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2014.956139
Hohmann-Porebska M (2002) Microfabric effects in frozen clays in relation to geotechnical parameters. Appl Clay Sci 21(1–2):77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1317(01)00094-1
IRC: SP 89-2010 (2010) Guidelines for soil and granular material stabilization using cement, lime and fly ash. The Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
Jamshidi RJ, Lake CB, Barnes CL (2015) Examining freeze/thaw cycling and its impact on the hydraulic performance of cement-treated silty sand. J Cold Reg Eng 29:4014014. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000081
Lake CB, Yousif MAM, Jamshidi RJ (2017) Examining freeze/thaw effects on performance and morphology of a lightly cemented soil. Cold Reg Sci Technol 134:33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.11.006
Li Y, Ling X, Su L et al (2018) Tensile strength of fiber reinforced soil under freeze-thaw condition. Cold Reg Sci Technol 146:53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.11.010
Liu J, Zha F, Xu L, Kang B, Yang C, Zhang W, Yang C, Zhang W, Zhang J, Liu Z (2020) Zinc leachability in contaminated soil stabilized/solidified by cement-soda residue under freeze-thaw cycles. Appl Clay Sci 186:105474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2020.105474
Lu Y, Liu S, Zhang Y, Li Z, Xu L (2020) Freeze-thaw performance of a cement-treated expansive soil. Cold Reg Sci Technol 170:102926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102926
Moreira EB, Baldovino JA, Rose JL, Izzo RL (2019) Effects of porosity, dry unit weight, cement content and void/cement ratio on unconfined compressive strength of roof tile waste-silty soil mixtures. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 11:369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2018.04.015
Orakoglu ME, Liu J (2017) Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on triaxial strength properties of fiber-reinforced clayey soil. KSCE J Civ Eng 21:2128–2140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-017-0960-8
Portland Cement Association (1992) Soil-cement laboratory handbook. Portland Cement Association, Skokie
Puppala AJ (2016) Advances in ground modification with chemical additives: From theory to practice. Transp Geotech 9:123–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2016.08.004
Rios S, Viana da Fonseca A, Consoli NC et al (2013) Influence of grain size and mineralogy on the porosity/cement ratio. Géotechnique Lett 3:130–136. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00003
Shibi T, Kamei T (2014) Effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the strength and physical properties of cement-stabilised soil containing recycled bassanite and coal ash. Cold Reg Sci Technol 106–107:36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.06.005
Sirivitmaitrie C, Puppala AJ, Saride S, Hoyos L (2011) Combined Lime-Cement Stabilization for Longer Life of Low-Volume Roads. Transp Res Rec J Transp Res Board 2204:140–147. https://doi.org/10.3141/2204-18
Srivastava M, Kumar V (2018) The methods of using low cost housing techniques in India. J Build Eng 15:102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.11.001
Strypsteen G, Sierens Z, Joseph M et al (2017) Freeze-thaw resistance of stabilized soils in Flanders. Int J Environ Stud 74:603–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2017.1335021
Tinoco J, Correia AG, Cortez P (2012) Jet Grouting Mechanicals Properties Prediction using Data Mining Techniques. In: Johnsen LF, Bruce DA, Byle MJ (eds) Grouting and Deep Mixing 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, pp 2082–2091
Venkatarama Reddy BV, Prasanna Kumar P (2011) Cement stabilised rammed earth. Part A: compaction characteristics and physical properties of compacted cement stabilised soils. Mater Struct 44:681–693. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-010-9658-9
Wang F, Xiang W, Corely T et al (2018a) The Influences of Freeze-Thaw Cycles on the Shear Strength of Expansive Soil Treated with Ionic Soil Stabilizer. Soil Mech Found Eng 55:195–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11204-018-9525-1
Wang W, Qin Y, Lei M, Zhi X (2018b) Effect of repeated freeze-thaw cycles on the resilient modulus for fine-grained subgrade soils with low plasticity index. Road Mater Pavement Des 19:898–911. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2017.1283352
Yan C, Zhang Z, Jing Y (2017) Characteristics of strength and pore distribution of lime-flyash loess under freeze-thaw cycles and dry-wet cycles. Arab J Geosci 10:544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3313-5
Yi Y, Liu S, Puppala AJ (2018) Bearing capacity of composite foundation consisting of T-shaped soil-cement column and soft clay. Transp Geotech 15:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.04.003
Zaimoğlu AŞ, Akbulut RK, Arasan S (2016) Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on strength behavior of compacted chicken quill-clay composite in undrained loading. J Nat Fibers 13:299–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2015.1029188
Zaimoglu AS (2010) Freezing–thawing behavior of fine-grained soils reinforced with polypropylene fibers. Cold Reg Sci Technol 60(1):63–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.07.001
Acknowledgements
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES)-Finance Code 001. The authors are thankful to the Federal University of Technology-Paraná and the support given by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Brazil) and Fundação Araucária do Paraná in Brazil. Finally, the authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their in-depth comments, suggestions, and corrections, which have greatly improved the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Jesús Arrieta Baldovino, J., dos Santos Izzo, R.L. & Rose, J.L. Effects of Freeze–thaw Cycles and Porosity/cement index on Durability, Strength and Capillary Rise of a Stabilized Silty Soil Under Optimal Compaction Conditions. Geotech Geol Eng 39, 481–498 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01507-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01507-y