Abstract
Post-wildfire investigations of structures provide engineers with data to understand how to harden building infrastructure for future wildfire hazards. This paper presents a preliminary framework where field-collected LiDAR and drone data is integrated with numerical models for post-wildfire assessment of buildings with the goal of learning from wildfire-damaged buildings. The developed framework provides a new and novel approach for post-wildfire instigations of buildings using field-collected data, particularly LiDAR and drone data. This framework is demonstrated on a metal-framed school building in Paradise, California that was heavily damaged in the 2018 Camp Fire. The authors collected drone aerial images and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) scans of Achieve Charter High School after the 2018 Camp Fire. All data were used to create a system-level finite element model to simulate the fire behavior of a portal frame with non-prismatic members. A parametric study was performed with three typical compartment fires to examine the influence of building characteristics on the fire’s maximum temperature and duration. Several time–temperature (T–t) curves, representing different fire scenarios, were generated between the two extreme cases produced by the parametric study. Finally, the finite element model was subjected to the generated fire curves, and the results were compared with the measured deformations from the LiDAR data collected in the field. The finite element model, subjected to each fire Time–temperature curve scenario, simulated global deformations within 2% of the true deformations.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (2002) FEMA 403, World Trade Center Building Performance Study. FEMA, Washington, DC
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2005) Final report on the collapse of the world trade center towers. (Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.), Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster (NIST NCSTAR 1)
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2005) Structural fire response and probable collapse sequence of the world trade center towers. (Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.), Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster (NIST NCSTAR 1-6)
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2008) Final report on the collapse of the world trade center building 7. (Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.), Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster (NIST NCSTAR 1A)
Meacham B, Engelhardt M, Kodur V (2009) Collection of data on fire and collapse, Faculty of Architecture Building, Delft University of Technology. In: Proceedings of 2009 NSF Engineering Research and Innovation Conference, 1–5
Behnam B (2019) Fire structural response of the Plasco building: a preliminary investigation report. Int J Civ Eng 17(5):563–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-018-0332-x
Ahmadi MT, Aghakouchak AA, Mirghaderi R, Tahouni S, Garivani S, Shahmari A, Epackachi S (2020) Collapse of the 16-story Plasco building in Tehran due to fire. Fire Technol 56(2):769–799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00903-y
Balogh T, Vigh LG (2016) Complex and comprehensive method for reliability calculation of structures under fire exposure. Fire Saf J 86(October):41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.09.002
Wang J, Sun W, Shou W, Wang X, Wu C, Chong HY, Liu Y, Sun C (2015) Integrating BIM and LiDAR for real-time construction quality control. J Intell Rob Syst 79:417–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10846-014-0116-8
Bosché F, Ahmed M, Turkan Y, Haas CT, Haas R (2015) The value of integrating Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM techniques for construction monitoring using laser scanning and BIM: the case of cylindrical MEP components. Autom Constr 49:201–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.05.014
Castellazzi G, D’Altri AM, Bitelli G, Selvaggi I, Lambertini A (2015) From Laser scanning to finite element analysis of complex buildings by using a semi-automatic procedure. Sensors 15(8):18360–18380. https://doi.org/10.3390/s150818360
Xu W, Neumann I (2020) Finite element analysis based on a parametric model by approximating point clouds. Remote Sens. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030518
Schulze SS, Fischer EC, Hamideh S, Mahmoud H (2020) Wildfire impacts on schools and hospitals following the 2018 California Camp Fire. Nat Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04197-0
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2002) Eurocode 1: actions on structures, part 1.2: general actions—actions on structures exposed to fire
Meacham B, Park H, Straalen IJ (2010) Fire and collapse, Faculty of Architecture Building, Delft University of Technology: Data Collection and Preliminary Analyses. Architecture, 14
Engelhardt MD, Meacham B, Kodur V, Kirk A, Park H, Van Straalen I, Maljaars J, Van Weeren K, De Feijter R, Both K (2013) Observations from the fire and collapse of the faculty of architecture building, delft university of technology. In: Structures congress 2013: bridging your passion with your profession - proceedings of the 2013 structures congress, pp 1138–1149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784412848.101
Radeloff VC, Helmers DP, Anu Kramer H, Mockrin MH, Alexandre PM, Bar-Massada A, Butsic V, Hawbaker TJ, Martinuzzi S, Syphard AD, Stewart SI (2018) Rapid growth of the US wildland-urban interface raises wildfire risk. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115(13):3314–3319. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718850115
Schoennagel T, Balch JK, Brenkert-Smith H, Dennison PE, Harvey BJ, Krawchuk MA, Mietkiewicz N, Morgan P, Moritz MA, Rasker R, Turner MG, Whitlock C (2017) Adapt tomore wildfire in western North American forests as climate changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 114(18):4582–4590. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1617464114
Couto C, Vila Real P, Ferreira J, Lopes N (2014) Numerical validation of the General Method for structural fire design of web tapered beams. Eurosteel 2014, September
Couto C, Duarte P, Vila Real P, Lopes N (2015) Verification of web tapered beam-columns in case of fire using the general method of Eurocode 3. IFireSS 2015, April, pp 79–86
Couto C, Maia É, Real PV, Lopes N (2019) Stability check of tapered steel beams in fire, pp 373–398. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/JSFE-01-2019-0002
Maia É, Real PV, Lopes N, Couto C (2019) General Method for the fire design of tapered steel columns: out-of-plane flexural buckling. Ce/Papers 3(3–4):677–682. https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.1120
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2005) Eurocode 3: design of steel structures, part 1.1: general rules and rules for buildings
Balogh T, Vigh LG (2017) Optimal fire design of steel tapered portal frames. Period Polytech Civ Eng 61(4):824–842. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.8985
Achieve Charter High School (@ACHSParadise) (2018) ACHS students learning about autism during advisory assembly today. Facebook 26 September 2018, https://www.facebook.com/ACHSParadise/posts/344354146301564. Accessed 24 July 2020
Achieve Charter High School (@ACHSParadise) (2018) ACHS assembly with Assemblyman James Gallagher. Facebook 6 November 2018, https://www.facebook.com/ACHSParadise/photos/a.152265665510414/365826774154301/?type=3&theater. Accessed 24 July 2020
Dean Steel Buildings, Inc. (2011) Guidelines for design. http://www.deansteelbuildings.com/products/building-systems/
Cadorin JF, Franssen JM (2003) A tool to design steel elements submitted to compartment fires—OZone V2. Part 1: pre- and post-flashover compartment fire model. Fire Saf J 38(5):395–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-7112(03)00014-6
Cadorin JF, Pintea D, Dotreppe JC, Franssen JM (2003) A tool to design steel elements submitted to compartment fires - OZone V2. Part 2: methodology and application. Fire Saf J 38(5):429–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-7112(03)00015-8
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2000) EN 12524 Building materials and products—hygrothermal properties—tabulated design values
Mehaffey JR, Cuerrier P, Carisse G (1994) A model for predicting heat transfer through gypsum-board/wood-stud walls exposed to fire. Fire Mater 18(5):297–305
Manzello SL, Park S-H, Mizukami T, Bentz DP (2008) Measurement of thermal properties of gypsum board at elevated temperatures. In: Proceedings of the fifth international conference on structures in fire, pp 656–665
Gypsum Association (2019) GA-235-2019 gypsum board typical mechanical and physical properties
Wilkes KE, Childs PW (1992) Thermal performance of fiberglass and cellulose attic insulations. In: Conference on thermal performance of the exterior envelopes of buildings V, pp 1–24
Enache-Pommer E, Mayer R, Parsons G (2013) Energy efficiency of building walls: thermal modeling, experimental testing, long term evaluation and correlation of building wall systems. In: ASHRAE annual conference, pp 1–8
Integrated Environmental Solutions (2011–2018) Reference data—Apache Tables—Table 6 thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and density. IES Virtual Environment (IESVE). https://help.iesve.com/ve2018/table_6_thermal_conductivity__specific_heat_capacity_and_density.htm. Accessed 8 May 2020
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2005) Eurocode 4: design of composite steel and concrete structures, part 1.2: general rules—structural fire design
ABAQUS/Standard Version 6.14 User's Manual (2017) Providence, RI
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2005) Eurocode 3: design of steel structures, part 1.2: General rules—structural fire design
Acknowledgements
This work has been funded by National Science Foundation (NSF) Grant CMMI- 1917298 and 1917316. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations presented in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF. We would like to acknowledge the NSF-funded RAPID Equipment Facility for their help with data collection. We would also like to thank the Paradise Unified School District for their assistance in providing our research team access to the ACHS building.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schulze, S., Fischer, E.C. & Mahmoud, H. Framework for Post-Wildfire Investigation of Buildings: Integrating LiDAR Data and Numerical Modeling. Fire Technol 57, 2407–2432 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-021-01124-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-021-01124-y