Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Experimental and Numerical Characterization of the Influence of a Smoldering Cellulosic Substrate on a Cigarette’s Ignition Propensity Test

  • Published:
Fire Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

An experimental and numerical investigation was conducted to characterize the influence of the cellulosic substrate used to assess the ignition propensity (IP) of cigarettes. Such an IP test is currently prescribed by the ISO 12863 standard and its results typically show poor repeatability. It is believed that such a low reproducibility is mainly due to the variability of the cigarette itself but it is unclear as to what extent the substrate also influences the variability of the test results. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to analyze the potential influence of the substrate by first characterizing the thermodynamic behavior experimentally and then constructing a numerical model that can quantify the relative influence of the distinct parameters. A suite of experimental methods that included TGA, DSC, infrared measurements and laser triangulation among others was used to measure the thermophysical properties of the substrate. These properties were then used to build a CFD model that simulated the smoldering combustion experienced by the substrate during the IP test. After validating the model against contactless temperature measurements, a parametric study consisting of 363 IP simulations was performed, which served to quantify the relative importance of 13 thermophysical parameters when varying in ranges of about 5%–50%. The results indicated that the heat capacity, pyrolysis activation energy, and air gap thickness are the most influencing aspects of the substrate because they influence the heat absorbed by the substrate about 7%, 26% and 33%, respectively. The latter parameter was found to significantly vary with each test and its influence was comparable to that of some major properties of the cigarette such as the cigarette’s temperature and burning rate. It is therefore postulated that the variability of the substrate itself plays an important role on the poor repeatability of the test and it may comprise its reliability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

A :

Pre-exponential factor (1/s)

c :

Specific heat capacity (J/kgK)

D :

Diffusion coefficient (\(\mathrm{m}^2/\mathrm{s}\))

E :

Activation energy (J/mol)

g :

Gravitational acceleration (\(\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}^2\))

h :

Enthalpy (J/kg) or convective heat transfer coefficient (\(\mathrm{W}/\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{K}\))

\(\varDelta H\) :

Heat of the reaction (J/kg)

\(\dot{j}^{\prime \prime }\) :

Diffusive mass flux (kg\(/\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{s}\))

K :

Permeability (\(\mathrm{m}^2\))

k :

Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

M :

Molecular mass (kg/mol)

\(\dot{m}^{\prime \prime }\) :

Mass flux (kg\(/\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{s}\))

\(n_{c_{p}}\) :

Exponential factor of the specific heat equation (1)

P :

Pressure (Pa)

\(\dot{Q} ^{\prime \prime \prime }\) :

Volumetric rate of heat source (\(\mathrm{W}/\mathrm{m}^3\))

\(\dot{q}^{\prime \prime }\) :

Heat flux (\(\mathrm{W}/\mathrm{m}^2\))

R :

Universal gas constant (J/molK)

t :

Time (s)

T :

Temperature (K)

X :

Volume fraction (1)

Y :

Mass fraction (1)

z :

Depth coordinate (m)

\(\gamma _T\) :

Cigarette’s temperature reduction factor (1)

\(\delta \) :

Thickness (m)

\(\varepsilon \) :

Emissivity (1)

\(\kappa \) :

Permeance (m/Pa  s)

\(\mu \) :

Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)

\(\nu \) :

Kinematic viscosity (\(\mathrm{m}^2/\mathrm{s}\))

\(\sigma \) :

Steffan–Boltzmann constant (\(\mathrm{W}/\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{K}^4\))

\(\varPsi \) :

Porosity (1)

\(\dot{\omega } ^{\prime \prime \prime }\) :

Volumetric reaction rate (kg\(/\mathrm{m}^3\mathrm{s}\))

a :

Ash

air :

Air

amb :

Ambient

c :

Cellulose

ch :

Char

cig :

Cigarette

cs :

From the cigarette to the substrate

chox :

Char oxidation reaction

d :

Destruction or datum

ev :

Evaporation reaction

f :

Formation

g :

Total gas

i :

Condensed species index: c, m, ch, a

in :

Flux inwards the substrate

j :

Gas species index: \(\mathrm{N}_2\), \(\mathrm{O}_2\), vap, pg, pr

k :

Reaction index: ev, pyr, chox

l :

Lower side of the substrate

m :

Moisture

\(\mathrm{N}_2\) :

Nitrogen

\(\mathrm{O}_2\) :

Oxygen

p :

At constant pressure

pg :

Pyrolysis gases (pyrolysates)

pr :

Gas products resulting from char oxidation

pyr :

Pyrolysis reaction

r :

Reference

s :

Solid non-porous density

sa :

From the substrate to the ambient

sb :

Substrate

u :

Upper side of the substrate

v :

Burning rate of the cigarette

vap :

Water vapor

References

  1. Barillo DJ, Brigham PA, Debra AK, Heck RT, McManus AT (2000) The fire-safe cigarette: a burn prevention tool. J Burn Care Res 21(2):164–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Standard, International Organization (2010) Standard test method for assessing the ignition propensity of cigarettes. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ohlemiller TJ, Kashiwagi T, Werner K (1987) Wood gasification at fire level heat fluxes. Combust Flame 69(2):155–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Kashiwagi T, Ohlemiller TJ, Werner K (1987) Effects of external radiant flux and ambient oxygen concentration on nonflaming gasification rates and evolved products of white pine. Combust Flame 69(3):331–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Ohlemiller TJ (1991) Smoldering combustion propagation on solid wood. Fire Saf Sci 3:565–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Moallemi KM, Zhang H, Kumar S (1993) Numerical modeling of two-dimensional smoldering processes. Combust Flame 95(1):170–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Das O (1999) Modelltheoretische Untersuchungen von Schwel- und Glimmbränden in Dämmschichten: Simulation von Schwel- und Glimmbränden in Cellulose. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI: Reihe 4, Bauingenieurwesen. VDI-Verlag

  8. de Souza Costa F, Sandberg D (2004) Mathematical model of a smoldering log. Combust Flame 139(3):227–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. DiNenno PJ (2008) SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. SFPE, Gaithersburg

    Google Scholar 

  10. Li KY, Huang X, Fleischmann C, Rein G, Ji J (2014) Pyrolysis of medium-density fiberboard: optimized search for kinetics scheme and parameters via a genetic algorithm driven by kissingers method. Energy Fuels 28(9):6130–6139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Huang X, Rein G (2014) Smouldering combustion of peat in wildfires: inverse modelling of the drying and the thermal and oxidative decomposition kinetics. Combust Flame 161(6):1633–1644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Huang X, Rein G, Chen H (2015) Computational smoldering combustion: predicting the roles of moisture and inert contents in peat wildfires. Proc Combust Inst 35(3):2673–2681.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Huang X, Rein G (2016) Thermochemical conversion of biomass in smouldering combustion across scales: the roles of heterogeneous kinetics, oxygen and transport phenomena. Bioresour Technol 207:409–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Huang Xi, Li K, Zhang H (2017) Modelling bench-scale fire on engineered wood: Effects of transient flame and physicochemical properties. Proc Combust Inst 36(2):3167–3175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Rostami A, Murthy J, Hajaligol M (2003) Modeling of a smoldering cigarette. J Anal Appl Pyrol 66(1):281–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Saidi MS, Mhaisekar A, Hajaligol MR, Subbiah M (2008) Mathematical modeling of a lit-end cigarette: Puffing cycle and effects of puff counts. Beiträge zur Tabakforschung/Contrib Tob Res 23(1):46–62.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Leach SV, Rein G, Ellzey JL, Ezekoye OA, Torero JL (2000) Kinetic and fuel property effects on forward smoldering combustion. Combust Flame 120(3):346–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Bar-Ilan A, Rein G, Fernandez-Pello CA, Torero JL, Urban DL (2004) Forced forward smoldering experiments in microgravity. Exp Thermal Fluid Sci 28(7):743–751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Rein G, Bar-Ilan A, Fernandez-Pello AC, Ellzey JL, Torero JL, Urban DL (2005) Modeling of one-dimensional smoldering of polyurethane in microgravity conditions. Proc Combust Inst 30(2):2327–2334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Rein G, Lautenberger C, Fernandez-Pello AC, Torero JL, Urban DL (2006) Application of genetic algorithms and thermogravimetry to determine the kinetics of polyurethane foam in smoldering combustion. Combust Flame 146(1):95–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Mitler HE, Walton GN (1993) Modeling the ignition of soft furnishings by a cigarette. US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology

  22. Rogers FE, Ohlemiller TJ (1980) Cellulosic insulation material i. overall degradation kinetics and reaction heats. Combust Sci Technol 24(3–4):129–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Kashiwagi T, Nambu H (1992) Global kinetic constants for thermal oxidative degradation of a cellulosic paper. Combust Flame 88(3–4):345–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Paper and board—determination of moisture content of a lot—oven-drying method. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, June 2009

  25. Paper and board—determination of thickness, density and specific volume. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, November 2011

  26. Paper and board—determination of grammage. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, July 2012

  27. Reaction to fire tests for products—determination of the gross heat of combustion (calorific value). Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, June 2010

  28. Paper and board—determination of air permeance (medium range)—part 3: Bendtsen method. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, November 2013

  29. Paper and board—determination of roughness/smoothness (air leak methods) – part 2: Bendtsen method. Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, September 2013

  30. Lautenberger C, Fernandez-Pello C (2009) Generalized pyrolysis model for combustible solids. Fire Saf J 44(6):819–839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Lautenberger C (2014) Gpyro3d: A three dimensional generalized pyrolysis model. Fire Saf Sci 11:193–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Baker RR (1974) Temperature distribution inside a burning cigarette. Nature 247:405–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Liu C (2005) A smouldering cigarette on 10-layer whatmanfilter paper substrate: temperature distribution. CORESTA, Stratford-upon-Avon.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This investigation was sponsored by the Deutscher Zigarettenverband e.V., an association representing most of the German tobacco industiry, and the authors greatly acknowledge its support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pontificia Universidad Católica, Vicuña Mackenna 4860, 7820436, Santiago, Chile

    Pablo Guindos

  2. TU Braunschweig, Pockelsstr 14, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany

    Apurva Patel

  3. Fraunhofer WKI, Bienroder Weg, 54E, 38108, Braunschweig, Germany

    Torsten Kolb, Peter Meinlschmidt, Friedrich Schlüter & Burkhard Plinke

Authors
  1. Pablo Guindos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Apurva Patel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Torsten Kolb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter Meinlschmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Friedrich Schlüter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Burkhard Plinke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pablo Guindos.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Guindos, P., Patel, A., Kolb, T. et al. Experimental and Numerical Characterization of the Influence of a Smoldering Cellulosic Substrate on a Cigarette’s Ignition Propensity Test. Fire Technol 54, 669–688 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-017-0699-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-017-0699-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation