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Method of Determining Smoke Detector Spacing in High Ceiling Applications

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Abstract

Simple tools for the design application of smoke detectors in commercial spaces with high ceilings and/or complex geometries do not exist due to the complexity in accurately estimating smoke densities and smoke detector activation characteristics. The response of commercial smoke detectors to UL/ULC standard flaming acceptance test fires and non-standard test fires in large open spaces with ceiling heights varying from 3 m to 21 m with radial distances from the fires up to 11.4 m is measured. Two algebraic models intended for unconfined ceilings, the two-zone computer model CFAST and the computational fluid dynamics computer model FDS are compared against each other and the experimental results. The ability to predict obscuration levels and detection times for these fires is evaluated. Recommendations are made for using the various models in commercial applications.

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Abbreviations

\( \dot{m} \) :

Mass loss rate [kg/s]

Cs :

Concentration of smoke [g/m3]

H:

Room height [m]

∆H:

Heat of combustion [kJ/kg]

I:

Intensity of light

l:

Beam length (m)

m:

Mass [kg]

OD:

Optical density [m−1]

P:

Pressure [Pa]

\( \dot{Q} \) :

Heat release rate [kW]

r:

Radius of interest from plume centreline [m]

S:

Smoke [m2]

t:

Time [s]

T:

Temperature [0C]

V:

Volume [m3]

Ysmoke :

Mass yield fraction of smoke [g/g]

z:

Height of interest above fuel [m]

zo :

Virtual origin [m]

α:

Extinction coefficient [m−1]

αm :

Mass specific extinction coefficient [m2/g]

ϕ:

Mass specific absorption area [m2/g]

σ:

Extinction area [m2]

σm :

Mass specific extinction area [m2/g]

λ:

Per cent obscuration of light per meter [%/m]

ρ:

Density [kg/m3]

χr :

Radiative fraction

c:

Convective

i:

Interface

l:

Lower layer, target location

m:

Maximum, mass specific

o:

Origin

s:

Soot or smoke

g:

Gravitational acceleration [9.81 m/s2]

cp :

Specific heat of air at constant pressure [1.004 kJ/kg°C]

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Carleton University/GENIVAR Engineering, 356 Kirkwood Avenue, Ottawa, ON, K1Z 8P1, Canada

    William Kuffner

  2. Carleton University, 1125 Colonel Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada

    George Hadjisophocleous

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  1. William Kuffner
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  2. George Hadjisophocleous
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Correspondence to William Kuffner.

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Kuffner, W., Hadjisophocleous, G. Method of Determining Smoke Detector Spacing in High Ceiling Applications. Fire Technol 50, 723–744 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-010-0141-5

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