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How to move and when to escape: quantifying intraspecific exploratory and anti-predator behavior in an aposematic poison frog

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Abstract

Aposematic animals are chemically defended and tend to have bright and conspicuous color patterns that warn predators of the costs of attack. Most research on aposematism focuses on the role that predator cognition has on the evolution of aposematic defenses. Although the behavior of aposematic organisms is likely to be crucial in affecting their survival, it has been less thoroughly investigated. Bolder and more active movement decisions, and a reduced likelihood to respond to perceived threats of predation, should increase the conspicuousness and distinctiveness of aposematic prey to predators, which in turn should enhance their fitness. Here, we developed a laboratory-based framework to study the behavior of poison frogs, which are both conspicuously colored and defended by toxic alkaloids. We designed experiments to quantify boldness, exploratory behavior, movement patterns, and escape behavior (flight initiation distance from an incoming avian predator model) in the strawberry poison frog, Oophaga pumilio, from northeastern Costa Rica. We tested females, non-vocalizing males, and calling males to measure the intraspecific variability in their behavior. Calling males had a larger flight initiation distance than females, and varied more in directional change when moving compared to females. Non-vocalizing males varied more in sinuosity when moving compared to females. We found no differences in boldness or exploratory behavior between the three groups. Our results indicate movement variability within intraspecific groups of a single population in O. pumilio. Additionally, our results suggest plasticity in the escape behavior of calling males, which contrasts with findings from field-based studies. Our framework allowed us to quantify intraspecific differences in some anti-predator behaviors. Combining individual behavioral profiles with field data can provide a standardized comparative approach to understand the ecological and evolutionary consequences of anti-predator behavior within and among species of poison frogs (Abstract in Spanish in the Online Appendix 1).

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Availability of data and material

All data used for this article as well as the R code used for data analysis and associated graphs are available in the FigShare repository in the links: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22681156.v1, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22681066.v1, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22680997.v1, and https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22680961.v1.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Sofia Granados-Martínez, Katherine Porras-Brenes, Fabian Bonilla, Mahmood Sasa, and Federico Bolaños for their input while developing the methodology and logistics. We also thank the Organization for Tropical Studies and La Selva Biological Station, particularly their staff members Danilo Brenes and Canuto. We thank Evelyn Claußen at the MPI-CE for administrative support.

Funding

This study was co-funded by the Max Planck Society and the Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE) of Costa Rica (project number 741-C1-653 in the Vicerrectoria de Investigación of the Universidad de Costa Rica). PM was funded by the New York University Abu Dhabi intern scholarship. FPS is funded by an IMPRS doctoral fellowship. HMR is funded by the Max Planck Society. JLS is funded by an ICGEB Early Career Grant (CRP/CRI19-04) and a UCR Fondo Semilla Grant (741-C0-470).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Programa de Posgrado en Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José, 11501-2060, Costa Rica

    Jeremy Klank

  2. Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans Knöll Straße 8, Jena, Germany

    Francesca Protti-Sánchez & Hannah M. Rowland

  3. New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

    Paula Mora-Rojas

  4. Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica

    Jeremy Klank & Jennifer L. Stynoski

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Contributions

JK: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing –Original Draft Presentation; Formal Analysis; Data curation; Writing – Review and Editing. FP-S: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data curation; Formal Analysis; Writing – Review and Editing; Funding Acquisition. PM: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing – Review and Editing. HMR: Writing – Review and Editing; Funding Acquisition. JLS: Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal Analysis; Writing – Review and Editing; Funding Acquisition.

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The research permits for this study were provided by the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC-ACC-VS-16-2021). All animal handling and experimental procedures were approved by the Biodiversity Comission of the University of Costa Rica (CBio-5-2021, Resolución #292), and the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of Costa Rica (CICUA-004-21).

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Klank, J., Protti-Sánchez, F., Mora-Rojas, P. et al. How to move and when to escape: quantifying intraspecific exploratory and anti-predator behavior in an aposematic poison frog. Evol Ecol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-023-10262-4

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