1 Introduction

Until the Twentieth century, fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas have been major supplied for electricity generation around the world. By the way, it was reported by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the Twenty-first century (REN21, 2020) that transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy (RE) has been on-going. Import dependency of fossil fuels is not only high risk on energy security, but also high contribution to both global climate change and local air pollution (Simionescu et al., 2020). While RE is not import dependency due to available around the world, and also zero GHG emissions; hence, supporting three pillars sustainable development. To achieve global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), systematic policy development plan as well as social innovation roles (United Nation, 2021), community involvement and social acceptance (Marquardt & Delina, 2018) are recommended. It was reported that the global trends of RE have directly affected to ASEAN's energy policy (Marquardt & Delina, 2018).

In 2021, global overview of renewables in cities illustrated that more than 1 billion people who lived in over 1300 cities having the RE policies or targets. As of the end 2020, at least 799 cities had RE policies which driven by air pollution crisis and better quality of life. The report shown the drivers and opportunities for RE depended on the local context such as climate change declaration and mitigation and adapting to resilience, supporting local economic development and jobs creation, reducing the cost of electrical supply with cheaper some RE investment, security energy supply and independence, and supporting energy justice and democracy (IRENA, 2018). The increasing of RE was up to 6% to approximately 295 Gigawatts (GW) during continuing of Covid-19 in 2021 and expected to growth remain stable increase over 8% in 2022 almost 320 GW depended on the stronger policies and implementation (IEA, 2022).

RE transition had become national policy of most countries with an aim to mitigate GHG emissions from energy sector, especially electricity generation which was the highest GHGs contribution (Climate Change Management & Coordination, 2021). EU energy policy had mix centralization and decentralization system operation and the different positions and roles of energy incumbents, and continually adapted new technology and process among the different policy negotiations (Lindberg et al., 2019). The major types of RE policy instrument had effectively in promoting the expansion of RE such as RE feed-in-tariff (FiT) to guarantee the long term 25 years of energy purchasing, net metering was that the utilities purchase electricity from prosumers (Daphne & Cheungc, 2021).

Thailand's GHG emissions by sector also confirmed that energy sector is the highest GHG emitter, electricity generation contributes the most (Thailand's GHG emissions, 2021). National Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP 2018) has set a target of 20–25% electricity generation from alternative energy by 2030. Meanwhile, Thailand's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) Roadmap 2021–2030 also set a target of 40% GHG mitigation by 2030 and achieving Net-Zero GHG Emissions by 2065 (Thailand’s Nationally Determined Contribution Roadmap on Mitigation 2021–2030. These are key drivers for all provinces to increase RE share, especially in the power sector. These plans and roadmaps are key drivers for RE transition in all provinces, including Krabi Province which is a case study for the present study.

Krabi Province was selected as a case study because it is one of key tourism destinations having continuously increasing of electricity consumption. In addition, Krabi is a province having concrete vision moving towards green economy. The visions are well known as "Krabi Vision 2020", “Krabi Goes Green", and "Krabi Green Tourism Declaration". RE transition in power sector has become one of key measures to Krabi Goes Green target of 100% RE for electricity generation by 2026. In 2016, Krabi Governors announced 7 Greens of Krabi under Krabi Global City, focused on sustainable tourism hand-in-hand with agricultural and industrial development. The 7 Greens concept comprises of green heart, green logistic, green service, green activity, green community, green attraction and green plus. Krabi provincial strategic plan was driven to the Sustainable Development Goals on the crossroad combating to stop the new coal project proposal that expected to generate carbon dioxide emission up to 18 million tons annually, contribute to climate change. To achieve sustainable energy, it should be sustainable both consumption (demand side) and production (supply side) or SCP (sustainable consumption and production) according to SDG12. To drive de-carbonization would bring to achieve some targets of SDGs such as Affordable and clean energy (Goal 7), Climate action (Goal 13), Responsible consumption and production (Goal 12), Decent work and economic growth (Goal 8), Industry, innovation and infrastructure (Goal 9) and Sustainable cities and communities (Goal 11). Integration of sustainable development and energy transition is an indicator to express how a province has embarked on an ambitious journey to expand renewables and energy security. The sustainable energy transition would cover the interdisciplinary triangle of sustainable development and the energy transition governance and also an analysis of the sustainable policy, participatory and planning of energy security. The direct relevance was that the environmental impacts concern with drivers, pressure, state of natural capital and response framework to local and national policy-decision and also, the frequency of using indicators like economic, environmental and institutional, and environmental aspects as a tool to approach sustainable creation with the indices for the public, policymakers and scientists to integrate a plan and practice.

2 Scope and study areas

Study area of the present is Krabi Province, locates at the southern part of Thailand. The province consists of eight districts as shown in Fig. 1. This study covered all districts of the province, eight districts with 53 sub-districts, but some were more focused due to resources distribution.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: Google and https://ofomaps.com

The area of study, Krabi Province, 2020.

Full size image

3 Research methodology

Documentary and qualitative approaches were applied for data collection, and then all data were analysed to identify key drivers, barriers, and challenges to overcome the barriers (see also Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Research design and methodology

Full size image

3.1 Data collection

The study started with the documentary research on Krabi's electricity demand and supply statistic, electricity load forecast and domestic resources of each RE using secondary information from both public available sources and directly requested from relevant agencies like Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), Provincial Cooperative Office, Krabi Municipality, and power producers. Searching for both national and provincial organizations have authorities and take responsibility on information, policy and regulations related to each RE and power plant investment. Most of which are outcomes for Krabi's electricity outlook and RE resources potential. All collected secondary information were analysed and descriptively presented in graphical chart, map, and Table forms for easily understanding.

Secondary information was collected from both literature reviews and documents directly provided by relevant organizations. Some information were collected from organization's websites, networks and reports publicly available. While some information which were not publicly available were requested from each relevant organization, including Krabi Goes Green network, and were collected from documents available at the office of relevant organization, and also face-to-face discussion with the officers. The primary information was qualitatively collected via either in-depth or small group interviews. List of informants was determined by recommendation from Krabi PEA, and some were recommended by the previous interviewer likes snow-ball method. Representatives were nominated from each organization. Site observation was also conducted. List of key informants or interviewees and stakeholder organizations, as shown in Tables 1and 2 planned to be collected. All outline questions to be interviewed are open-ended semi-structure type categorized into three groups: general, drivers, barriers, challenges to overcome barriers.

Table 1 List and numbers of interviewee from relevant stakeholders, 2020
Full size table
Table 2 List of organization providing key information relevant to renewable energy transition, 2020
Full size table

Examples of general questions are: In your opinion, what would be the key factors to achieve Krabi sustainable energy? What are the key drivers to push Krabi Goes Green Vision and Roadmap? Which organizations are key stakeholders for the success investment of each RE? What the beginning of RE investment in Krabi Province? etc.

Examples of drivers questions are: how potential and investment of each RE? How about the timeline of energy transition process from fossil to RE emerged in Krabi Province? How RE transition benefits to Krabi Province? etc.

Examples of barriers questions are: What are the key barriers to obstruct investment of each RE in Krabi? How about the controvert policy that impacts to renewable energy transition? etc.

Example of challenge questions are: what would be key challenges to overcome the barriers? What are the disruptive of renewable energy transition and how? etc.

3.2 Data analysis

The collected information was analysed using content and descriptive analysis. Keywords from interviews were manually selected categorized based on drivers, barriers, and challenges, and then input in the excel program for keyword frequency analysis (Lis et al., 2020) in order to prioritize the keywords mentioned by interviewees. The keyword frequency analysis method was successfully used in policy-relevant studies. For examples, use of cloud computing system results in increasing energy consumption and energy efficiency, exploring public perceptions of renewable energy (Kim et al., 2020), global evolution of research on green energy and environmental technologies (Tan et al., 2021), constructing a weighted keyword-based patent network approach to identify technological trends and evolution in a field of green energy (Chao-Chan, W. 2016). The research framework is shown in Fig. 2.

4 Results and discussion

Upon information collection from secondary sources, it was found that Krabi's electricity demand has been continuously increasing while the domestic supply could not meet its annual demand even high potential of domestic resources has been reported. What would be key drivers, barriers, and challenges to overcome the barriers towards RE transition in the province were investigated via in-depth interviews and small group interviews. The results were summarized and briefly described below.

4.1 Krabi's electricity outlook

Krabi's electricity demand and supply (see also Fig. 3) illustrated that during 1964–1985, the domestic supply from a 60 MW coal-fired power plant fulfilled its annual demand until decommissioning in 1995 (The information of Krabi’s energy transition during 1964–2021, 2021). Since then, electricity supply in the province has mainly relied on national grid from power plants in the southern part of Thailand until nowadays. Even though a 340 MW oil-fired power plant was installed in 2004, its role is just for standby during high peak load because of high oil price. RE transition at Krabi was started in 2007 with a 9.5 MW biomass power plant, followed by biogas power plants since 2008. Solar PV farms and solar rooftops have been installed since 2018. While only one WtE power plant (6 MW) was installed in 2020. By the way, total RE power supply still could not meet its annual demand. More than half of Krabi electricity demand is still relying on national grid.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Source: Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), 2020 and AER, 2022 (https://ph01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/aer/article/view/248451)

Krabi’s electricity supply and demand during 1964–2021.

Full size image

Electricity load forecast (as shown in Fig. 4) indicated that peak load demand in the province has continuously increasing from 35 MW in 2000, up to 159 MW in 2019, and tends to increase up to 320 MW in 2037. Electricity consumption in the province reached the peak load between 130 and 160 MW almost every month and exhibited similar trends in 2018, 2019, and 2020 (). The peak load trend was quite different from national peak load with the highest consumption during summer due to more utilization of air conditioners. While, tourists always use air conditioner, not only summer.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Source Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), 2020

Krabi’s electrical peak load and load forecast in 2000–2037 (MW).

Full size image

4.2 Domestic RE potential domestic potential

Domestic potential of each RE collected from various secondary sources can be summarized in Table 3 and briefly described below.

Table 3 Potential and installation of Krabi's RE (MW), 2019.
Full size table

Referring to data from Krabi Goes Green report, potential of RE in the province as of June 2020 (see also Table 3) is 1676 MW, where 1162 MW of which from solar PV, 249 MW from palm oil biomass, 200 MW from wind, 60 MW from biogas, 32 MW from rubber tree biomass, and 10 MW from mini-hydro power plants. Most RE power plants in Krabi are very small power producers (capacity not exceed 1 MW), and location of each power plant across the province is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Source Modified from Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), 2020

Very Small Power Producer (VSPP) of Krabi Province.

Full size image

4.3 Drivers, barriers, and challenges to overcome the barriers

High-frequency keywords from stakeholders' interviews as shown in Table 4 indicate that high-frequency keywords for drivers of Krabi RE transition are Krabi Goes Green, green tourism, public participation, provincial policy, and RE potential. While the barriers mostly mentioned by stakeholders are power purchasing policy, the quota system, energy politic, opposing biomass, WtE, and lacking expertise. High-frequency keywords for challenges to overcome the barriers are biomass storage, waste management, and supply chain management, city planning, and monitoring system. Details of which are briefly described below.

Table 4 High-frequency keywords from stakeholders’ interview, 2020
Full size table

4.3.1 Key drivers

High-frequency keywords from interviewees' answer relevant to drivers for Krabi RE transition are Krabi Goes Green, Green Tourism, public participation, provincial policy, and RE potential as describe below. These drivers mostly mentioned by tourism stakeholders, Krabi Goes Green network and renewable energy power producers.

4.3.1.1 Krabi Goes Green

“Krabi Goes Green” is a provincial vision towards green economy with planning to sustain green tourism, green industry, and green energy with maximizing utilization of domestic renewable resources for electricity generation. It also set a target of 100% RE electricity generation by the year 2026. Most interviewees mentioned that Krabi Goes Green vision is one of key drivers for Krabi RE transition.

4.3.1.2 Green tourism

Green Tourism Declaration was established with direction towards sustainable tourism in the province. In order to sustain green tourism in the province, green energy or RE is one priority. Another is to minimize impacts from accumulated Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), where WtE is an option to be considered. Some districts have adopted zero waste concept under the Green Tourism Declaration. Therefore, green tourism was also mentioned as a key driver for Krabi RE transition.

4.3.1.3 Public participation

It is noticed that Krabi has uniqueness and high strength in public participation. Important policies, in particular the Krabi Vision 2020 and Krabi Goes Green Roadmap, have all stakeholders, including both private sector and civil society involved in the whole process of policy development. It is also noticed that most people have Krabi Goes Green in their mind and willing to collaborate as best as possible. The Krabi Goes Green is an important master plan under Krabi Vision 2020 which started from Community Tourism. Master Plan of Tourism Declaration 2014–2020. Component of the Krabi Vision 2020 and its process, as shown in Fig. 6, illustrates quite good public participation of the Krabi Province. The committee consists of representatives from both governmental agencies, private sector, and civil society. The process to achieve the Krabi Vision 2020 as well as Krabi Goes Green involved twice public participation platforms and also public hearing. These confirm the strong public participation of Krabi citizen. The public participation has been leading Krabi's citizen to further manage benefit distribution and to utilize the RE potential across the province. There are six key stakeholders involve in public participation on Krabi Goes Green and RE transition: Policy makers (both provincial and national levels), business (both RE and fossil businesses), community and civil society network, academia, prosumers (those switching to electricity selling from solar rooftop), and financial institutions.

  1. 1.

    Government and policy makers: both provincial and national levels

  2. 2.

    Business: both RE power producers and fossil fuel businesses.

  3. 3.

    Community and civil society network: strong network to oppose any new fossil fuel projects.

  4. 4.

    Academia: feasibility study, research, briefing of RE projects support the strong evident of benefits sharing and monitoring the projects.

  5. 5.

    Prosumers: those who switch themselves from electricity bill payer to electricity generation for sale via solar rooftop.

  6. 6.

    Financial institution: loan provider to support investment for both power producers and prosumers.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Green Tourism, Krabi Vision 2020 and Krabi Goes Green Roadmap, 2020

Full size image

There are three main institutions involving in RE investment as follow; Ministry of Energy, ERC and PEA as key governmental institutions of RE policy planning. Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization was the key provincial representative for provincial policy and planning for RE transition whereas the civil society accountability was formed as Krabi Goes Green network. Apart from the three main institutions mentioned above, there are many institutions such as Ministry of Agricultural and Cooperatives, Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization, Krabi City Planning Office, Krabi Provincial Cooperative Office, and power producers taking accountability on solar PV investment in the province. The Ministry of Energy has signed MOU with the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to provide land options for solar farm installation. Financial institutions in collaboration with Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization are also taking accountability on providing soft lone for small investors. Krabi City Planning Office is taking accountability on land use licensing approval. While Krabi Provincial Cooperative Office is taking part in approval of cooperatives investment.

In case of biomass and biogas power plant investment, apart from the three main institutions mentioned above, Krabi Agricultural Cooperatives network is also a key institution taking accountability on bio-energy supply chain. Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization, Provincial Industry Office, and Krabi City Planning Office are also key involved institutions. Financial institutions are also taking accountability on providing soft lone for farmers harvesting either palm oil tree or rubber tree feeding bio-energy supply chain. It is noticed that direction of bio-energy investment has been addressed as a provincial strategic plan.

Regarding WtE, apart from the three main institutions mentioned above, Ministry of Interior is a key institute taking accountability on MSW management, either landfill or WtE power plant. The Ministry of Interior established policy and long-term planning for solid waste management and also works closely with Krabi Municipality and provincial solid waste clusters. Even high budget, these institutions have always supported the provincial solid waste management to fulfil the provincial clean and green tourism destination. Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization, the Provincial Industry Office as well as the Krabi City Planning Office are also key involved institutions. It is noticed that most relevant agencies including private sector and civil society involved in the important policy development process and specifically in each category of RE as shown in Table 5. That was to confirm the successful implementation of many policies would be due to well participation of both institutions and public of Krabi Province.

Table 5 Timeline of Krabi renewable energy transition policies, 2020
Full size table
4.3.1.4 Provincial policy

Krabi has Green Tourism Declaration as a fundamental strategic plan to lead balancing of green environment and tourism growth. Followed with Krabi Goes Green 2020 focusing on resources management and green energy development. During that time public opposing a new coal-fired power plant has been key momentum to set such a challenging target of 100% electricity generation from RE as timeline shown in Table 5. The history of RE transition timeline in Krabi can be observed from Fig. 3.

Krabi provincial strategic plan derived from the various stakeholders from top-down and bottom up process. Ownership was heart of provincial planning and affects to the strong direction together and reducing the conflicts. More than ten years those plans had been conducting and implement in every level including governmental agencies, private sectors and communities in the province. Provincial plan and implementation was the important to frame the direction of RE development. The capacity of RE production, the flow of the implementation plan in the province continually drove to achieve the plan and naturally supported the vision of local governmental agencies and boosting the private sector and investors deciding to agree on the plan. The depth of power analysis, the strong vision and relationship of the leaders, key influencers and private investors in the province motivated the followers to be on a track of the policy implementations.

4.3.1.5 Potential of RE

Abundant of RE resources is one of key 4As (Availability, Affordability, Accessibility, and Acceptability) for energy security and sustainability. High potential or availability of RE resources in the province is sustainable due to it is domestic supply. Therefore, most interviewees mentioned that the high potential of RE resources is one of key drivers for Kribi’s sustainable development.

4.3.2 Key barriers and challenges

High-frequency keywords relevant to barriers are power purchasing, quota system, energy politics, opposing biomass and WtE and lacking expertise. The obstacles had significantly mentioned by renewable energy power producers, provincial governmental agencies and prosumer. While the high-frequency keyword relevant to challenges overcoming each barrier are biomass storage, waste management, city planning, supply chain management and monitoring system, while the barriers mostly mentioned by stakeholders are renewable power producers.

4.3.2.1 Power purchasing policy

According to policy on power purchasing, electricity from VSPP is non-firm agreement where PEA can deny purchasing during day time having electricity supply from solar PV and power producer also deny selling electricity during night time with lower price. This is leading to unsecure power supply. In order to reduce the conflict, some interviewees’ recommend revision of the power purchasing agreement (PPA) for both biomass and biogas power plants, most of which are VSPPs. Revising the PPA is very challenging and needs all stakeholder's consultation both provincial and national levels.

4.3.2.2 Quota system

Solar energy is unlimited resources in Thailand, including Krabi Province. However, the province has land limited for solar farm. Therefore, solar rooftop is suggested to be promoted in the province with quite high potential if not facing with the biggest barrier of quota system. Some interviewees suggested the quota system should be unlocked in order to encourage much more installation in all sectors, including the residential sector which is the biggest electricity consumer. Even not high frequency, some interviewees suggested unlocking the quota system is very much challenging.

4.3.2.3 Energy politics

Investment in energy projects must depend on long-term policy and approval politics from the energy related central government agencies, while the provincial agencies have less authority. Most interviewees suggested that the approval process would be transparent and more systematic to encourage successful implementation of AEDP. Challenging of Krabi RE transition moving towards green economy is collaboration of institutions and stakeholders. The study found that strength and uniqueness of Krabi is that having its own provincial roadmap developed by all stakeholder participation, so that most people have "Krabi Goes Green" in their mind and willing to collaborate as best as possible. Due to Krabi is a tourism destination, city planning for proper land utilization is an important practice. Any RE power plants are not allowed to be installed in conservation and some restricted areas. Therefore, even high potential and feasible in many aspects, the investor should consult with Krabi's Office of Public Work, Town, and Country Planning. That's why some interviewees mentioned about challenging of the city planning aspect.

4.3.2.4 Opposing biomass and WtE

Even high potential of biomass from palm oil industry and huge amount of MSW in the province, both biomass and WtE power plants are opposed by community because both power plants must incinerate the solid fuels (biomass or MSW) to generate heat and emit combustion pollutants, especially dust from fly ash. In case of WtE, there are not only impacts from combustion pollutants, but also bad smell of accumulated MSW. Most people do not want to have either waste landfill site or WtE power plant near their house because of less “public trust”. This would be one of the biggest barriers for both biomass and WtE power plant implementation. To encourage public trust and acceptance is very much challenging. An important measure recommended by interviewees is compulsory to install high efficiency end-of-pipe treatment facilities together with real-time monitoring system to ensure zero emission of combustion pollutants. Some interviewees recommended that a community power plant model having community as shareholders with fair benefit sharing is one more challenge to encourage public acceptance. Fair compensation to communities nearby was also recommended. Energy storage mentioned by interviewees referring to storage or stock management to secure fuel supply. This is quite important for biomass power plant where the biomass is seasoning supply. Having supply chain management or supply contracts with other sources and/or other provinces nearby are suggested as an option to secure the biomass supply. Construct a biomass storage facility is one more option suggested by interviewees.

4.3.2.5 Lacking expertise

Energy technology, especially electricity generation, requires expert engineer to design, construct and operate. The most difficult and really need various expertise is WtE because the MSW must be managed properly in order not to create impacts to people nearby. Challenge to overcome this barrier, recommended by some interviewees, and is inviting external investors coming with technology transfer and technical training for both technicians and engineers. It also needs pretreatment or preparation before feeding the waste to the incinerator. In case of solar PV, even no combustion and turbine generator, it still requires expertise. Therefore, most interviewees agree that lacking expertise for RE technology is one of the biggest barriers for RE power plant investment in the province.

Apart from the high-frequency keywords mentioned above, some keywords with low frequency are important as well. Some interviewees mentioned about bidding system which open for external investors may inhibit domestic investors even they have technology potential but lower negotiation techniques. If small power plants can use internal bidding system, it would encourage more community's acceptance because the power plant belongs to domestic investor and the community would get more benefit sharing.

The study found that key drivers for the RE transition in Krabi Provinces were both national policy towards low carbon city as well as energy security and provincial policy towards green economy with a target of 100% RE electricity generation by the year 2026. Solar rooftop is clean and public acceptable. Solar farm is also clean, public acceptance, and very high resource potential, but facing with the barrier of land limitation. Most agricultural cooperatives would like to switch their land from palm oil tree plantation to invest solar farm. This may impact on palm oil supply security. In case of biomass power plants, there are much enough resources potential due to a lot of palm oil industries in the province. However, burning solid biomass to produce steam for electricity generation usually emits air pollutants, especially dust of fly ash so that most of biomass power plants are facing with public opposing. Another barrier of biomass is unsecure supply due to seasoning available. As Krabi has land limitation for waste landfill and most people are opposing more new landfill site. While huge amount of many years accumulated MSW as well as continuously increasing daily generated MSW needed to be eliminated and waste-to-energy (WtE) power plant has been considered as a win–win option. These measures can be developed and implemented at the provincial level but needs all stakeholder consultation and policy integration among relevant national and provincial government agencies, private sectors and civil networks.

Potential of RE transition is challenging Krabi Province how to utilize the fruitful resource to generate electricity and self-reliance. National policy on Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) and provincial policy on Krabi Goes Green, high solar potential, green energy without combustion pollutants, and community's positive mindset are key factors for solar PV investment. Another disruptive driver is rapidly lowering price of the solar PV panels leading to the shorter return on investment, especially solar rooftop with 5–6 years return on investment. This disruptive driver encourages both household, business, hospitals and schools are interested to install the solar rooftop to reduce electricity bills. However, they are facing with the quota system, randomness process and politic aspects. More transparent and systematic processes are recommended. Solar farm is also high potential, but facing with land limitation and high price. Therefore, solar rooftop tends to be higher successful if no quota limited. The open mind consultation among relevant agencies are recommend in order to achieve both AEDP and Krabi's sustainable energy.

However, both biomass and biogas power plants are facing with a big barrier of unsecure power purchasing agreement because the both are classified as non-firm system. PEA can deny purchasing if over-supply from other sources, especially during daytime supplied from Solar PV. In case of biogas, the producers still have their choice by converting to use for heat in their process, but quite big barrier for biomass power producers. Meanwhile, Krabi Goes Green has set target to maximize utilization of domestic RE resources to produce electricity in the province. Therefore, all relevant agencies should open mind discussion and solve the problem together to fulfill both provincial and national policy on AEDP. Another option to solve biomass supply is imported from other provinces and well storage. Furthermore, Community Power Plant concept should be thought framed by Ministry of Energy and Ministry of Interior. Whereas biomass and biogas has experienced the long term barrier of power purchasing policy, that is directly to the authority of PEA to revise the one price measurement of time use and invest energy storage.

Even high potential of WtE due to huge amount of accumulated MSW urgently needs to be eliminated to minimize both environmental and health impacts, most people are still opposing and have negative mindset on both MSW dumping or landfill site, and also concern with the combustion pollutants, especially dioxin and dust of fly ash. In case of fly ash particulates, installation of electrostatic precipitator can solve the problem. Therefore, information and knowledge sharing have become very important to achieve public acceptance. As the accumulated MSW without proper management creates severe impacts so that elimination of the MSW would be considered as the first priority. By the way, instead of just burning to eliminate the MSW, it would be win–win option if eliminating the MSW with WtE power plant to gain electricity at the same time. Implementation of the WtE power plant would involve with so many organizations like Krabi Provincial Administrative Organization, Power producers, Krabi Municipality, Ministry of Interior, Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Industry, Krabi Goes Green network and civil society, open mind consultation and policy integration among these agencies are very important and challenging.

Challenging of Krabi’s RE transition is to collaborate the relevant energy policies and implementation with the key responsible agencies. Public participation and guideline for all renewable development should be standardized by national and formal and informal provincial institutions. Power purchasing policy recommendation for biomass, biogas and solar energy should be revised and prioritize its purchasing on grid, smart grid system investment and regulate net metering as the new measurement of solar rooftop. Quota system is not effective and not motivate prosumer to generate electricity from RE even it is abundant of renewable resources and how to share benefits to all relevant stakeholders. Integrated MSW management and WtE is advantage to reduce the conflicts and burden of MSW and another clusters across the province, especially the impacts of contamination and pollution that require Polluters Pay Principle and PRTR regulations. Those policies are authorized by national and provincial governmental agencies level, various institutions and of course, civil society and Krabi Goes Green network should be included. Finally, Community Power Plant initiative as the new concept of energy investment also needs various public participation to frame benefits sharing such as local economic income, quality of life, environmental and energy security etc.

Provincial plan and implementation is the important to frame the direction of RE development. Krabi Province has Green Tourism plan, the fundamental strategic plan to lead a green environment balancing tourism growing. Then, a provincial roadmap on Krabi Vision 2020 and Krabi Goes Green report it is including resources management and green energy development. During that time, the citizen movement to oppose the new coal power plant project happened as the disruptive momentum for more than 5 years until now. Krabi at the crossroads to make a decision on provincial development plan and it so far derails coal project means to the more opportunity for RE investment. Public participation motivated the Krabi provincial strategic plan that derived from the various stakeholder from top-down and bottom up process. More than ten years those plans has been conducting and implement in every level including governmental agencies, private sectors and communities in a province. Profits distribution was considered to accept the provincial planning and implementation. Outcomes and outputs of RE transition benefits to the diverse groups. Profits both direct and indirect aspects such as the profit of investment, the income of power producer supply chain, environmental and health sustainability, job creation, and welfare or funding etc. Sharing those benefits to citizen in a province is strengthen the sustainable RE transition. Sustainable RE transition is a fundamental of provincial strategic plan and national net zero GHG emission plan aiming to reduce the fossil fuel emission of electricity generating sector, recovery just energy transition during Covid-19 and climate adaptation.

Krabi Vision 2020 and Krabi Goes Green contributed the moving towards Green Economy Goal 7 of SDG. Krabi will become key sources of clean industries and renewable energy from agriculture, especially palm oil industry. Both palm oil and palm oil industrial wastes can become an important source for electricity generation. Solar, wind, small-hydro, and waste-to-energy are also high potential. If fulfill implementation, the electricity supply would exceed the provincial demand. Therefore, Krabi would change from electricity import to electricity export with high contribution to improve Krabi's socio-economic. In addition, the higher amount of electricity generation from RE, the lower GHG emissions, the better environment as well as the better human health, which are in line with the 3 Pillars of sustainable development. Meanwhile, Electricity generation from domestic available RE resources would lead to available supply, environmental acceptable, electricity accessible with affordable price, which are corresponding with the 4As for energy security or sustainable energy: Availability, Acceptability, Accessibility, and Affordability, proposed by Ang et al., (2015).

5 Policy implications

According to the key drivers, barriers, and challenges to overcome the barriers mentioned above, policy implications as well as responsible agencies for the policies of each RE can be summarized and shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Policy implications for renewable energy transition towards Krabi’s sustainable energy, 2020
Full size table

In addition, the followings are some important policies should not be ignored even low frequency mentioned by interviewees for examples; educate and train for solar cell installation, loan for solar rooftop, Community Power Plant implementation for biomass and biogas, endorse Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) for biomass and WtE and provide the incentive measures for communities around landfill and WtE power plant etc.

6 Conclusion and recommendations

The study was started with reviews of Krabi's electricity demand and supply as well as electricity demand forecast, and also searching for potential of each RE resources in the province. The study found that Krabi's domestic electricity supply could fulfill its annual demand just during 1964–1995 where a 60 MW coal-fired power plant was operated. Since decommissioning the coal-fired power plant in 1995, Krabi has relied on electricity from southern national grid until nowadays. Upon considering domestic RE resources reported by Krabi Goes Green 2020, it was found that total potential would exceed the demand forecast. However, total installation of RE power plants in the province, as of July 2020, was only 67.4 MW which is only nearly half of its annual demand.

Although Krabi has fulfill the potential of RE as mentioned in Krabi Goes Green 2020 report, this study was conducted to investigate key drivers, barriers, and challenges to overcome the barriers in order to ensure the fulfill potential of RE resources in the province. Upon considering potential and barriers of each RE, it was found solar seems to be the highest potential with the lowest barriers. However, the solar farm may affect land use for palm oil tree plantation. Therefore, solar rooftop is considered as the highest option for Krabi Province. However, the quota system should be reconsidered. WtE is also high potential, but facing with public opposing. Public trust is recommended to achieve public acceptance. Biomass and biogas are also high potential, but facing with the uncertainty of power purchasing policy (PPA). Revising the PPA is highly recommended. The biomass power plants are also facing with seasoning supply of the solid biomass. Supply chain management as well as the biomass storage system are recommended.

Strengthen RE transition of Krabi Province was stakeholder values, benefits distribution, potential of RE and provincial strategy. Multi entrepreneur generated the connection of the relevant policies and stakeholders participation for example, a person was a fishery folk, planting rubber trees and guide for boat tours during a high tourism season, his multi-task was linked to natural resources management, Agricultural and Cooperatives Association, and green tourism planning etc. The multi-entrepreneur was a driving factor to establish their provincial policies. Secondly, the benefits distribution including income, job creations and public health are valued to the communities’ decision to jump in the RE development and investment. Last but not the least, it was citizen participation in a process of RE transition although there were different ladders of participation. For example, a person was a member of Agricultural and Cooperative Association, informed about solar cooperative projects and being a part of decision making though a public hearing system. The implementation of its project would be consulted and placated for land renting and construction etc. Some RE, especially solar energy, granted benefits to the members of Agricultural and Cooperative Association via its welfare funding annually. The step of participation was partnership and delegated power for the project’s investment as the joint of project owners and empowerment. Furthermore, sustainable energy transition in Krabi Province was significantly linked to economic, social and environmental aspects mainly benefited to green tourism, citizen acceptation and the quality of ecosystem.