Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The impact of multilingualism on host language acquisition

Empirica volume 46, pages 741–766 (2019)Cite this article

Abstract

The paper uses micro-data from the Spanish National Immigrant Survey to examine an uncharted question: are multilingual immigrants superior at learning the destination language? The article adopts an instrumental variable (IV) approach where the number of foreign languages known by the immigrant is instrumented using the following variables: (1) the number of nationalities of the immigrant’s father and (2) the number of foreign countries where the individual has settled prior to his arrival in Spain. Above all, these instruments pass well several validity tests. The IV estimates show that for every additional foreign language learned by the immigrant the probability of being proficient in the destination language—Spanish—increases by 10.7%. This effect is equivalent to multiple years of formal education, to living in Spain for more than 4 years, and as important as having a mother tongue linguistically close to Spanish. We find mild evidence that women reap larger benefits from multilingualism than men (13.0 against 10.0%).

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (Canada)

Notes

  1. Based on the question “What is your mother tongue?”

  2. Only 1.0% of the observations were affected by this choice.

  3. About 2.3% of the observations were dropped for this reason.

  4. A dichotomous dependent variable reduces the probability of misclassification and, therefore, the extent of bias (Dustmann and van Soest 2001). Results under the alternative classification 1 against 2–4 are available upon request.

  5. A methodological point is how the questionnaire was administered to people with very limited Spanish proficiency. Interviews were conducted personally by trained interviewers and were available in various languages, including German, French, English, Romanian and Arab, apart from Spanish. People with limited language proficiency in the available languages could be assisted by other, more proficient family members.

  6. Amongst Spain’s 17 Autonomous Communities (regions), five are officially bilingual, including the Basque Country (Basque), Balearic Islands (Catalan), Catalonia (Catalan), Galicia (Galician) and Valencia (Valencian).

  7. Since we drop individuals whose mother tongue is Spanish, the Latin-America variable mostly captures individuals from Brazil (72%). The rest includes population mainly from Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay where indigenous languages (Quechua, Guarani and Aymara among others) are widely spoken as a mother language. All the individuals included in this category declare a mother language that is different from Spanish and may have lived in communities with little or no exposure to Spanish.

  8. Although the questionnaire includes questions related to the spouses’ nationality, there is a large amount of missing values-85%. This does not allow us to include a covariate for immigrants married to a Spanish citizen.

  9. Self-reported measures of speaking fluency typically suffer from misclassification/measurement errors, with the probabilities of over-reporting being higher than the probabilities of under-reporting (Dustmann and van Soest 2001). Although IV estimates mitigate the effect of measurement errors inherent in self-assessed measures of literacy (Charette and Meng 1994), there is a need for longitudinal immigration data that is currently not available in most countries.

  10. We thank an anonymous referee for this remark. To rule out concerns about any potential correlation between the selected instrument and the likelihood of inter-ethnic marriage, we calculated the correlation between the father’s and the mother’s nationalities. A positive value would imply that fathers with extra nationalities are more likely to marry women from other nationalities. The correlation in our data was found to be as low as − 0.04.

  11. 70.2% of all migration flows registered in our data were in fact due to necessity reasons.

  12. The correlation is high and typically overlooked. Average years of schooling are 9.9 in the sample. However, this figure rises to 11.2 among immigrants who speak 1 or 2 foreign languages, and to 13.1 among immigrants who speak 3 or more languages.

  13. It is difficult to assess the direction of causality, for children may be also affected by their parent’s language proficiency. In additional computations not reported on this paper, we regressed the child’s host language proficiency for children aged between 5 and 16 on a vector of parental characteristics, including parental Spanish proficiency, and two additional dummy variables for school attendance and children’s nationality. We found that the two most relevant variables were school attendance and nationality. Parental proficiency was significant but relatively low in magnitude and definitively much weaker than the coefficient for child proficiency in the parental equation. We interpret this as evidence suggesting that immigrant parents fall behind in the process of host language acquisition relative to their children, given that the children’s interaction with natives and their school attendance are crucial factors that contribute to develop their communication abilities.

  14. Some immigrants (8.0%) have prior immigration experience in countries with Romance languages (France, Italy, Portugal, Romania). In computations not reported here we tested whether this previous exposure was associated with any advantage in the process of learning Spanish. We found that the resulting coefficient was low (3.2 pp) and non-significant at conventional levels. We believe that our inability to control for relevant information, such as the timing of previous immigration experiences and the duration of them, partially explains this result.

  15. To account for the potential correlation of error terms across groups, the tests is based on a cluster robust variance estimator that combines the covariance matrices obtained in the estimations of the different subsamples. This is achieved by using a routine that follows in spirit the suest command in STATA.

  16. Setting a maximum of one year and three years yields estimates of 9.3 and 17.2 pp, respectively.

  17. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-15-5698_en.htm.

  18. Spain received 3585 applications in the third quarter of 2015 compared to 1415 in the third quarter of 2014. Nevertheless, this only represents 0.9% of the total EU asylum applications (Eurostat).

References

  • Adsera A, Chiswick B (2007) Are there gender and country of origin differences in immigrant labor market outcomes across European destinations? J Popul Econ 20:495–526

    Google Scholar 

  • Adserà A, Pytliková M (2016) Language and migration. In: Ginsburgh V, Weber S (eds) The Palgrave handbook of economics and language, chap. 12. Palgrave, London, pp 342–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Angrist J, Pischke S (2009) Mostly harmless econometrics: an empiricist’s companion. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Antoniou M, Liang E, Ettlinger M, Wong P (2015) The bilingual advantage in phonetic learning. Biling: Lang Cognit 18:283–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Beenstock M, Chiswick BR, Paltiel A (2010) Testing the immigrant assimilation hypothesis with longitudinal data. Rev Econ Household 8:7–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Bialystock E (1988) Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Dev Psychol 24:560–567

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleakley H, Chin A (2010) Age at arrival, english proficiency, and social assimilation among US immigrants. Am Econ J: Appl Econ 2:165–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Bound J, Jaeger D, Baker R (1995) Problems with instrumental variable estimation when the correlation between instruments and the endogenous explanatory variables is weak. J Am Stat Assoc 90(430):443–450

    Google Scholar 

  • Budría S, Swedberg P (2015) The impact of language proficiency on immigrants’ earnings in Spain. Rev de Econ Aplicada 23(67):63–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron C, Trivedi PK (2010) Microeconometrics using stata. Revised edition. Stata Press, College Station

    Google Scholar 

  • Casale D, Posel D (2011) English language proficiency and earnings in a developing country: the case of South Africa. J Socio-Economics 40:385–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Cenoz J (2013) The influence of bilingualism on third language acquisition: focus on multilingualism. Lang Teach 46:71–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Charette M, Meng R (1994) Explaining language proficiency. Econ Lett 44(3):313–321

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Miller P (2001) A model of destination-language acquisition: application to male immigrants in Canada. Demography 38:391–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Miller P (2005) Linguistic distance: a quantitative measure of the distance between english and other languages. J Multiling Multicult Dev 26:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Miller P (2008a) Modeling immigrants’ language skills. Res Labor Econ 27:75–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Miller P (2010) Occupational language requirements and the value of English in the US labor market. J Popul Econ 23:353–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Repetto G (2001) Immigrants adjustment in Israel: the determinants of literacy and fluency in hebrew and the effects on earnings. In: Djacic S (ed) International migration: trends, policy and economic impact. Routledge, London, pp 204–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Beenstock M, Repetto G (2001) The effect of linguistic and country of origin on immigrant language skills: application to Israel. Int Migr 39:33–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Lee YL, Miller P (2004) Immigrants’ language skills: the Australian experience in a longitudinal survey. Int Migrat Rev 38:611–654

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Lee YL, Miller P (2005) Family matters: the role of the family in immigrants’ destination language acquisition. J Popul Econ 18:631–647

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiswick B, Miller P (2008b) A test for critical period hypothesis for language learning. J Multiling Multicult Dev 29:16–29

    Google Scholar 

  • De Palo D, Faini R, Venturini A (2007) The social assimilation of immigrants. The World Bank Social Protection DP 0701

  • Dustmann C (1999) Temporary migration, human capital, and language fluency of migrants. Scand J Econ 101:297–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Dustmann C, van Soest A (2001) Language fluency and earnings: estimation with misclassified language indicators. Rev Econ Stat 83(4):663–674

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission (2009) Study on the contribution of multilingualism to creativity: final report. European Commission, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurostat (2016) Migrant integration statistics-employment. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Migrant_integration_statistics_-_employment. Accessed 20 Sept 2016

  • Goza F, Kayamura S (2013) English acquisition and Japanese language maintenance among Japanese-American youth. Int Migr 51:149–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirosh Z, Degani T (2018) Direct and indirect effects of multilingualism on novel language learning: an integrative review. Psychon Bull Rev 25(3):892–916

    Google Scholar 

  • Isphording IE, Otten S (2013) The cost of babylon-linguistic distance in applied economics. Rev Int Econ 21:354–369

    Google Scholar 

  • Jimenez-Catalan RM (2003) Sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies. Int J Appl Linguist 13:54–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalashnikova M, Mattock K, Monaghan P (2014) The effects of linguistic experience on the flexible use of mutual exclusivity in word learning. Biling: Lang Cognit 18:626–638

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasinitz P, Mollenkopf J, Waters M, Holdaway J (2008) Inheriting the City: the children of immigrants come of age. Russell Sage and Harvard University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaushanskaya M, Marian V (2009a) The bilingual advantage in novel word learning. Psychon Bull Rev 16:705–710

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaushanskaya M, Marian V (2009b) Bilingualism reduces native- language interference during novel-word learning. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cognit 35:829–835

    Google Scholar 

  • Krizman J, Marian V, Shook A, Skoe E, Kraus N (2012) Subcortical encoding of sound is enhanced in bilinguals and relates to executive function advantages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(20):7877–7881

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni VS, Hu X (2014) English language proficiency among the foreign born in the United States, 1980–2007: duration, age and cohort effect. Int Migrat Rev 48:762–800

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis MP, Simons G, Fennig C (2015) Ethnologue: Languages of the world, 18th edn. SIL International, Dallas

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma S (2008) Paternal race/ethnicity and birth outcomes. Am J Public Health 98(12):2285–2292

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning A, Roy S (2010) Culture clash or culture club? National Identity in Britain. Econ J R Econ Soc 120(542):F72–F100

    Google Scholar 

  • Marian V, Shook A (2012) The cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Cerebrum 12

  • Medvedeva M (2012) Negotiating languages in immigrant families. Int Migrat Rev 46:517–545

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakao K, Takaishi J, Tatsuta K, Katayama H, Iwase M, Yorifuji K, Takeda M (2000) The influences of family environment on personality traits. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 54(1):91–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Nottmeyer O (2015) Intermarriage and the economic success of immigrants. IZA World Labor 2015:160. https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2012) International migration outlook 2012. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/migr_outlook-2012-en. Accessed 26 Nov 2013

  • OECD (2014) International migration outlook 2014, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/migr_outlook-2013-en. Accessed 26 Nov 2014

  • Powell JC, Batters JD (1985) Pupils perception of foreign language learning at 12 + : some gender differences. Educ Stud 11:12–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard R (1987) Boys and girls attitudes towards French and German. Educ Res 29:12–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinteros Baumgart C, Billick SB (2018) Positive cognitive effects of bilingualism and multilingualism on cerebral function: a review. Pschiatry Q 89:273–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Raijman R (2013) Linguistic assimilation of first-generation Jewish South-African immigrants in Israel. J Int Migr Integr 14:615–636

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanz C (2007) Predicting enhanced L3 learning in bilingual contexts: The role of biliteracy. In: Pérez-Vidal C, Juan-Garau M, Bel A (eds) A portrait of the young in the new multilingual Spain. Multilingual Matters, Buffalo, pp 220–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Springer S, Deutsch G (1989) Left brain, right brain. Freeman, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Stock JH, Wright J, Yogo M (2002) A survey of weak instruments and weak identification in generalized method of moments. J Bus Econ Stat 20(4):518–529

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas K (2010) Household context, generational status and English proficiency among the children of African immigrants in the U.S. Int Migrat Rev 44:142–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang T, Saffran JR (2014) Statistical learning of a tonal language: the influence of bilingualism and previous linguistic experience. Front Psychol 5:953

    Google Scholar 

  • Waters MC, Tran Van C, Kasinitz P, Mollenkopf JH (2010) Segmented assimilation revisited: types of acculturation and socioeconomic mobility in young adulthood. Ethnic Racial Stud 33(7):1168–1193

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Universidad de Nebrija, Madrid, Spain

    Santiago Budría

  2. Department of Business and Economics, Saint Louis University, Avenida del Valle 24, s/n, 28003, Madrid, Spain

    Pablo Swedberg

Authors
  1. Santiago Budría
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pablo Swedberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pablo Swedberg.

Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5 Determinants of Spanish language proficiency—probit estimates (marginal effects)
Full size table
Table 6 Determinants of foreign languages known
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Budría, S., Swedberg, P. The impact of multilingualism on host language acquisition. Empirica 46, 741–766 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-018-9422-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-018-9422-x

Keywords

  • Immigration
  • Language proficiency
  • Destination language proficiency
  • Instrumental variables

JEL Classification

  • J15
  • J24
  • J61

Search

Navigation