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Identification of hydrochemical fingerprints, quality and formation dynamics of groundwater in western high Himalayas

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Abstract

Identifying hydrochemical fingerprints of groundwater is a challenge in areas with complex geological settings. This study takes the Gilgit–Baltistan, a complex geological area in west high Himalayas, Pakistan, as the study area to get insights into the hydrochemcial genesis and quality of groundwater in complex geological mountainous regions. A total of 53 samples were collected across the area to determine the hydrochemical characteristics and formation of groundwater. Results revealed groundwater there is characterized by slightly alkaline and soft fresh feature. Groundwater is dominated by the hydrochemical facies of HCO3·SO4-Ca·Mg type. The factor method yields three components (PCs) of principal component analysis, which together explain 75.71% of the total variances. The positive correlation of EC, TDS, Ca2+, SO42−, K+ in PC1, and NO3−, Cl− in PC2 indicate that a combination of natural and anthropogenic activities influences groundwater hydrochemistry. Water–rock interaction is the main mechanism governing the natural hydrochemistry of groundwater. The negative correlation of Cl−, SO42−, Ca2+, and Na+ with NDVI attributes to inorganic salt uptake by plant roots. Groundwater chemical composition is also affected by the type of land use. Groundwater is characterized as excellent and good water quality based on the entropy-weighted water quality index assessment, and is suitable for drinking purposes except for very few samples, while aqueous fluoride would pose potential health threats to water consumers in western high Himalayas, and infants are most at risk compared to other populations. This study will help to deepen the hydrochemial formation mechanism and exploitation suitability of groundwater resources in the mountainous areas that undergone the combined actions of nature and human activities, and provide insights into the characteristics of water environmental quality in western Himalayas area.

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Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to the editor and anonymous reviewers whose insightful comments were very helpful in improving the paper.

Funding

This research was funded by the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (2022NSFSC1084); the Applied Basic Research Project of Science and Technology Program of Qinghai Province (2024-ZJ-771); the MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) (2023–004); Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Cycling and Eco-Geological Processes (SK202305KF01); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42007183); the Student Research Training Program of Southwest Jiaotong University (202310613077); the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2682022ZTPY002, 2682022ZTPY088).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China

    Muhammad Haziq Khan, Yong Xiao, Hongjie Yang, Liwei Wang, Yuqing Zhang, Wenxu Hu, Jie Wang, Gongxi Liu & Weiting Liu

  2. MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, People’s Republic of China

    Yong Xiao

  3. Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Cycling and Eco-Geological Processes, Xiamen, 361021, China

    Yong Xiao

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  1. Muhammad Haziq Khan
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  2. Yong Xiao
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  3. Hongjie Yang
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  4. Liwei Wang
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  5. Yuqing Zhang
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  6. Wenxu Hu
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  7. Jie Wang
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  8. Gongxi Liu
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  9. Weiting Liu
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Contributions

Muhammad Haziq Khan: field investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing—original draft. Yong Xiao: conceptualization, formal analysis, writing—reviewing and editing. Hongjie Yang: data curation, methodology, formal analysis. Liwei Wang: data curation, formal analysis. Yuqing Zhang: data curation, methodology, formal analysis. Wenxu Hu: methodology, data curation, formal analysis. Jie Wang: data curation, methodology, formal analysis. Gongxi Liu: data curation, methodology, formal analysis. Weiting Liu: methodology, data curation.

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Correspondence to Yong Xiao.

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Khan, M.H., Xiao, Y., Yang, H. et al. Identification of hydrochemical fingerprints, quality and formation dynamics of groundwater in western high Himalayas. Environ Monit Assess 196, 305 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12466-9

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