Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed in the water in swimming pools due to reactions between disinfectants (chlorine, bromine, ozone) and the organic matter introduced by bathers and supply water. High concentrations of DBPs are also reported in the air of indoor swimming pools. Based on a robust multisampling program, the levels and variations of DBPs in the air (trichloramine [TCAM] and trihalomethanes [THMs]) and water (THM) were assessed, as well as their precursors (total organic carbon, water temperature, pH, free, and total chlorine) and proxies (CO2 and relative humidity) in four indoor chlorinated swimming pools. High-frequency sampling was conducted during one high-attendance day for each pool. This study focused on parameters that are easy to measure in order to develop models for predicting levels of THMs and TCAM in the air. The results showed that the number of bathers had an important impact on the levels of THMs and TCAM, with a two-to-three-fold increase in air chloroform (up to 110 μg/m3) and a two-to-four-fold increase in TCAM (up to 0.52 mg/m3) shortly after pools opened. The results of this study for the first time showed that CO2 and relative humidity can serve as proxies for monitoring variations in airborne THMs and TCAM. Our results highlight the good predictive capacity of the developed models and their potential for use in day-to-day monitoring. This could help optimize and control DBPs formation in the air of indoor swimming pools and reduce contaminant exposure for both pool employees and users.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
Afifi, M. Z., & Blatchley, E. R. (2015). Seasonal dynamics of water and air chemistry in an indoor chlorinated swimming pool [Article]. Water Research, 68, 771–783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.037
AFSSA. (2009). In A. F. Aliments & A. F. Santé (Eds.), Avis de l′ AFSSA relatif à l′évaluation des risques sanitaires liés aux situations de dépassement de la limitede qualité des bromates dans les eaux destinées à la consommation humaine (p. 15). France.
Ahmadpour, E., Halle, S., Valois, I., Ryan, P. E., Haddad, S., Rodriguez, M., et al. (2022a). Temporal and spatial variations in the levels of prominent airborne disinfection by-products at four indoor swimming pools. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2022.2035741
Ahmadpour, E., Halle, S., Valois, I., Ryan, P. E., Haddad, S., Rodriguez, M., et al. (2022b). Temporal and spatial variations in the levels of prominent airborne disinfection by-products at four indoor swimming pools. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 19(4), 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2022.2035741
Ahmadpour, E., Halle, S., Valois, I., Ryan, P. E., Haddad, S., Rodriguez, M., et al. (2022). Comparison of sampling collection strategies for assessing airborne trichloramine levels in indoor swimming pools. Research Square Platform LLC. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1336660/v1
Allen, J. M., Plewa, M. J., Wagner, E. D., Wei, X., Bollar, G. E., Quirk, L. E., et al. (2021). Making swimming pools safer: Does copper–silver ionization with chlorine lower the toxicity and disinfection byproduct formation? Environmental Science & Technology, 55(5), 2908–2918. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c06287
ASHRAE. (2016). ASHRAE handbook - Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning applications (I-P Edition). In In Ventilation for indoor air quality. ANSI, American National Standards Institute.
Bessonneau, V., Derbez, M., Clement, M., & Thomas, O. (2011). Determinants of chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools [Article]. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 215(1), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.07.009
Carter, R., & Joll, C. (2017). Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 58, 19–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.06.013
Chowdhury, S. (2017). Occurrences and changes of disinfection by-products in small water supply systems. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6410-8
Chowdhury, S., Mazumder, A. J., & Husain, T. (2016). Predicting bromide incorporation in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool [Article]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(12), 12174–12184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6339-4
Chowdhury, S., Rodriguez, M. J., & Sadiq, R. (2011). Disinfection byproducts in Canadian provinces: Associated cancer risks and medical expenses. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 187(1), 574–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.085
Chu, H., & Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J. (2002). Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59(4), 243–247. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.59.4.243
Daiber, E. J., DeMarini, D. M., Ravuri, S. A., Liberatore, H. K., Cuthbertson, A. A., Thompson-Klemish, A., et al. (2016). Progressive increase in disinfection byproducts and mutagenicity from source to tap to swimming pool and spa water: impact of human inputs. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(13), 6652–6662. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00808
Delpla, I., Simard, S., Proulx, F., Sérodes, J.-B., Valois, I., Ahmadpour, E., et al. (2021). Cumulative impact of swimmers on pool water quality: A full-scale study revealing seasonal and daily variabilities of disinfection by-products. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 9(6), 106809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106809
Dirtu, D., Pancu, M., Minea, M. L., Chirazi, M., Sandu, I., & Dirtu, A. C. (2016). Study of the quality indicators for the indoor swimming pool water samples in Romania [Article]. Revista De Chimie, 67(6), 1167–1171.
Drolet, D., & Beauchamp, G. (2012). Sampling guide for air contaminants in the workplace [Technical guide](978-2-89631-692-2). IRSST. https://www.irsst.qc.ca/en/publications-tools/publication/i/384/n/sampling-guide-for-air-contaminants-in-the-workplace-8th-edition-version-8-1-updated-t-15. Accessed 8 Feb 2022.
Dyck, R., Sadiq, R., Rodriguez, M. J., Simard, S., & Tardif, R. (2011). Trihalomethane exposures in indoor swimming pools: A level III fugacity model. Water Research, 45(16), 5084–5098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.07.005
Felgueiras, F., Mourão, Z., Morais, C., Santos, H., Gabriel, M. F., & de Oliveira Fernandes, E. (2020). Comprehensive assessment of the indoor air quality in a chlorinated Olympic-size swimming pool. Environment International, 136, 105401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105401
Firuzi, P., Asl Hashemi, A., Samadi Kafil, H., Gholizadeh, P., & Aslani, H. (2020). Comparative study on the microbial quality in the swimming pools disinfected by the ozone-chlorine and chlorine processes in Tabriz. Iran. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(8), 516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08470-4
Freeman, L. E. B., Cantor, K. P., Baris, D., Nuckols, J. R., Johnson, A., Colt, J. S., et al. (2017). Bladder cancer and water disinfection by-product exposures through multiple routes: A population-based case control study (New England, USA) [Article]. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(6), 9. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp89
Gerardin, F., Cloteaux, A., & Midoux, N. (2015). Modeling of variations in nitrogen trichloride concentration over time in swimming pool water. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 94, 452–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2014.10.004
Golbaz, S., Nabizadeh, R., Zarinkolah, S., Mahvi, A. H., Alimohammadi, M., & Yousefi, M. (2019). An innovative swimming pool water quality index (SPWQI) to monitor and evaluate the pools: design and compilation of computational model. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191(7), 448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7577-y
Granger, C. O., & Richardson, S. D. (2022). Do DBPs swim in salt water pools? Comparison of 60 DBPs formed by electrochemically generated chlorine vs. conventional chlorine. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 117, 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.044
Hansen, K. M. S., Albrechtsen, H.-J., & Andersen, H. R. (2013). Optimal pH in chlorinated swimming pools – Balancing formation of by-products. Journal of Water and Health, 11(3), 465–472. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.156
Hansen, K. M. S., Willach, S., Antoniou, M. G., Mosbæk, H., Albrechtsen, H.-J., & Andersen, H. R. (2012a). Effect of pH on the formation of disinfection byproducts in swimming pool water – Is less THM better? Water Research, 46(19), 6399–6409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.09.008
Hansen, K. M. S., Willach, S., Mosbæk, H., & Andersen, H. R. (2012b). Particles in swimming pool filters – Does pH determine the DBP formation? Chemosphere, 87(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.01.003
Hery, M., Hecht, G., Gerber, J. M., Gendre, J. C., Hubert, G., & Rebuffaud, J. (1995). Exposure to chloramines in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 39(4), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-4878(95)00013-5
Hsu, H.-T., Chen, M.-J., Tsai, K.-C., Huang, L.-J., Lin, C.-H., Lai, C.-H., & Cheng, L.-H. (2023). Modelling chloroform in indoor swimming pool air and water: The influences of internal air circulation and occupants. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(19), 54857–54870. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25978-7
Hsu, H. T., Chen, M. J., Lin, C. H., Chou, W. S., & Chen, J. H. (2009). Chloroform in indoor swimming-pool air: Monitoring and modeling coupled with the effects of environmental conditions and occupant activities [Article]. Water Research, 43(15), 3693–3704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.032
Ilyas, H., Masih, I., & van der Hoek, J. P. (2018). An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. Journal of Water and Health, 16(6), 861–892. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.067
Jacobs, J. H., Spaan, S., van Rooy, G., Meliefste, C., Zaat, V. A. C., Rooyackers, J. M., & Heederik, D. (2007). Exposure to trichloramine and respiratory symptoms in indoor swimming pool workers [Article]. European Respiratory Journal, 29(4), 690–698. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00024706
Kanan, A., & Karanfil, T. (2011). Formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water: The contribution from filling water natural organic matter and swimmer body fluids [Article]. Water Research, 45(2), 926–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.09.031
Keil, C. B., Berge, W. F. T., & Subcommittee, A. I. H. A. E. A. S. C. M. (2000). Mathematical models for estimating occupational exposure to chemicals. AIHA Press. https://books.google.ca/books?id=Ah6KrTD4zkAC. Accessed 11 Dec 2021.
Keuten, M. G. A., Schets, F. M., Schijven, J. F., Verberk, J. Q. J. C., & van Dijk, J. C. (2012). Definition and quantification of initial anthropogenic pollutant release in swimming pools. Water Research, 46(11), 3682–3692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.012
Kim, D., Ates, N., Bekaroglu, S. S. K., Selbes, M., & Karanfil, T. (2017). Impact of combining chlorine dioxide and chlorine on DBP formation in simulated indoor swimming pools [Article]. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 58, 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.04.020
Kogevinas, M., Villanueva, C. M., Font-Ribera, L., Liviac, D., Bustamante, M., Espinoza, F., et al. (2010). Genotoxic effects in swimmers exposed to disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pools. Environ Health Perspect, 118(11), 1531–1537. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1001959
Kristensen, G. H., Klausen, M. M., Hansen, V. A., & Lauritsen, F. R. (2010). On-line monitoring of the dynamics of trihalomethane concentrations in a warm public swimming pool using an unsupervised membrane inlet mass spectrometry system with off-site real-time surveillance. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 24(1), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.4360
Lamont Bradford, W. (2014). What bathers put into a pool: A critical review of body fluids and a body fluid analog. International Journal of Aquatic Research & Education, 8(2), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijare.2013-0028
Lee, J., Jun, M.-J., Lee, M.-H., Lee, M.-H., Eom, S.-W., & Zoh, K.-D. (2010). Production of various disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 213(6), 465–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.09.005
Levesque, B., Ayotte, P., Tardif, R., Charest-Tardif, G., Dewailly, E., Prud’Homme, D., et al. (2001). Chloroform in indoor swimming pools: Evaluation of the exposure end the health risk [Meeting Abstract]. Epidemiology, 12(4), S25–S25.
Levesque, B., Vezina, L., Gauvin, D., & Leroux, P. (2015). Investigation of air quality problems in an indoor swimming pool: A case study. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 59(8), 1085–1089. https://doi.org/10.1093/annhyg/mev038
Li, C., Wang, D., Li, N., Luo, Q., Xu, X., & Wang, Z. (2016). Identifying unknown by-products in drinking water using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–quadrupole mass spectrometry and in silico toxicity assessment. Chemosphere, 163, 535–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.053
Li, C., Wang, D., Xu, X., & Wang, Z. (2017). Formation of known and unknown disinfection by-products from natural organic matter fractions during chlorination, chloramination, and ozonation. Science of The Total Environment, 587-588, 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.108
Lochner, G., & Wasner, L. (2017). Ventilation requirements for natatarium. ASHRAE Journal, 59(7), 16.
Lourencetti, C., Grimalt, J. O., Marco, E., Fernandez, P., Font-Ribera, L., Villanueva, C. M., & Kogevinas, M. (2012). Trihalomethanes in chlorine and bromine disinfected swimming pools: Air-water distributions and human exposure. Environment International, 45, 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.03.009
Nakagawa, S., & Schielzeth, H. (2013). A general and simple method for obtaining R2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 4(2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x
Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., & Elliott, P. (2000). Uptake of chlorination disinfection by-products; A review and a discussion of its implications for exposure assessment in epidemiological studies. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 10(6), 586–599. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500139
Nitter, T. B., & Svendsen, K. vH. (2019). Modelling the concentration of chloroform in the air of a Norwegian swimming pool facility-A repeated measures study. Science of the Total Environment, 664, 1039–1044.
Nitter, T. B., & Svendsen, K. V. H. (2020). Covariation amongst pool management, trichloramine exposure and asthma for swimmers in Norway. Science of The Total Environment, 723, 138070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138070
Nitter, T. B., Kampel, W., Svendsen, K. V. H., & Aas, B. (2017). Comparison of trihalomethanes in the air of two indoor swimming pool facilities using different type of chlorination and different types of water. Water Suply, 18(4), 1350–1356. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.201
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1979). Sampling and analytical methods (Standard No. 05) - Chloroform. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/organic/org005/org005.html
Olsen, K. (2007). Clear waters and a green gas: A history of chlorine as a swimming pool sanitizer in the United States. Bulletin for the History of Chemistry, 32(2), 129–140.
Richardson, S. D., DeMarini, D. M., Kogevinas, M., Fernandez, P., Marco, E., Lourencetti, C., et al. (2010). What’s in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(11), 1523–1530. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1001965
Richardson, S. D., Plewa, M. J., Wagner, E. D., Schoeny, R., & Demarini, D. M. (2007). Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and roadmap for research. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 636(1-3), 178–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001
Richardson, S. D., & Postigo, C. (2015). Formation of DBPs: State of the science. In T. Karanfil, B. Mitch, P. Westerhoff, & Y. Xie (Eds.), Recent advances in disinfection by-products (Vol. 1190, pp. 189-214). Amer Chemical Soc..
Rivera-Núñez, Z., & Wright, J. M. (2013). Association of brominated trihalomethane and haloacetic acid exposure with fetal growth and preterm delivery in Massachusetts. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 55(10), 1125–1134. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e3182a4ffe4
Saleem, S., Dyck, R., Hu, G., Hewage, K., Rodriguez, M., & Sadiq, R. (2019). Investigating the effects of design and management factors on DBPs levels in indoor aquatic centres. Science of The Total Environment, 651, 775–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.172
Simard, S., Tardif, R., & Rodriguez, M. J. (2013). Variability of chlorination by-product occurrence in water of indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Water Research, 47(5), 1763–1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.12.024
Skripak, J. M. (2011). Swimming pool attendance, asthma, allergies, and lung function in the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children cohort. Pediatrics, 128(Supplement 3), S119–S119. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2107TT
Soltermann, F., Canonica, S., & von Gunten, U. (2015). Trichloramine reactions with nitrogenous and carbonaceous compounds: Kinetics, products and chloroform formation. Water Research, 71, 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.12.014
Tardif, R., Catto, C., Haddad, S., Simard, S., & Rodriguez, M. (2016). Assessment of air and water contamination by disinfection by-products at 41 indoor swimming pools [Article]. Environmental Research, 148, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.04.011
Tardif, R., Rodriguez, M., Catto, C., Charest-Tardif, G., & Simard, S. (2017). Concentrations of disinfection by-products in swimming pool following modifications of the water treatment process: An exploratory study. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 58, 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.021
Teo, T. L. L., Coleman, H. M., & Khan, S. J. (2015). Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. Environment International, 76, 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.012
Therese, B. N., Morten, S. G., Kristin, V. H. S., Rikke, B. J., Salvatore, C., & Guangyu, C. (2020). Can CO2 sensors in the ventilation system of a pool facility help reduce the variability in the trihalomethane concentration observed in indoor air? Environment International, 138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105665
Tsamba, L., Cimetière, N., Wolbert, D., Correc, O., & Le Cloirec, P. (2020). Body fluid analog chlorination: Application to the determination of disinfection byproduct formation kinetics in swimming pool water. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 87, 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.06.009
Tsamba, L., Correc, O., & Couzinet, A. (2020). +Chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools: Development of a pilot pool unit and impact of operating parameters. Environment International, 137, 105566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105566
Uysal, T., Yilmaz, S., Turkoglu, M., & Sadikoglu, M. (2017). Investigation of some disinfection chemicals and water quality parameters in swimming pools in the city center and districts of Canakkale. Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(7), 338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6031-2
Valeriani, F., Protano, C., Vitali, M., & Spica, V. R. (2017). Swimming attendance during childhood and development of asthma: Meta-analysis [Article]. Pediatrics International, 59(5), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.13230
Villanueva, C. M., Cantor, K. P., Grimalt, J. O., Malats, N., Silverman, D., Tardon, A., et al. (2006). Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(2), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj364
Wang, J., Zhang, M., Hu, S., Xian, Q., Chen, H., & Gong, T. (2022). Occurrence and cytotoxicity of aliphatic and aromatic halogenated disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool water and their incoming tap water. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(24), 17763–17775. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c07175
Weng, S., Weaver, W., Afifi, M., Blatchley, T., Cramer, J., Chen, J., & Blatchley, E. (2011). Dynamics of gas-phase trichloramine (NCl3) in chlorinated, indoor swimming pool facilities [Article]. Indoor Air, 21(5), 391–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2011.00710.x
Westerlund, J. (2016). Occupational exposure to trichloramine and trihalomethanes: Adverse respiratory and ocular effects among Swedish indoor swimming pool workers [Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary, Örebro university]. DiVA. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:oru:diva-51601. Accessed 7 Oct 2021.
Wyczarska-Kokot, J., Lempart-Rapacewicz, A., Dudziak, M., & Łaskawiec, E. (2020). Impact of swimming pool water treatment system factors on the content of selected disinfection by-products. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(11), 722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08683-7
Xu, Z., Shen, J., Qu, Y., Chen, H., Zhou, X., Hong, H., et al. (2022). Using simple and easy water quality parameters to predict trihalomethane occurrence in tap water. Chemosphere, 286, 131586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131586
Zhang, X., Yang, H., Wang, X., Zhao, Y., Wang, X., & Xie, Y. (2015). Concentration levels of disinfection by-products in 14 swimming pools of China [journal article]. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 9(6), 995–1003. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-015-0797-7
Zhang, X.-L., Yang, H.-W., Wang, X.-M., Fu, J., & Xie, Y. F. (2013). Formation of disinfection by-products: Effect of temperature and kinetic modeling. Chemosphere, 90(2), 634–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.08.060
Zheng, X., Xu, J., Gao, Y., Li, W., Chen, Y., Geng, H., et al. (2023). Within-day variation and health risk assessment of trihalomethanes (THMs) in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(7), 18354–18363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23498-4
Zuur, A. F., Ieno, E. N., Walker, N. J., Saveliev, A. A., & Smith, G. M. (2009). Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Jenifer Robert and André Boilard from the Ville de Québec and the Ville de Montreal for providing access to the pools and for their help in implementing the sampling strategy. The authors also wish to thank the staff at the Université Laval Drinking Water Chair for DBPs analysis and sampling assistance, as well as Christine Beaulieu from the Ville de Québec for the analysis of physicochemical parameters. The authors would like to acknowledge the Occupational and Environmental Health and Safety Laboratory of Montreal University for air sample analysis.
Funding
This project is funded by IRSST-Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail (Project Number N/Dossier 2015-00102).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Elham Ahmadpour, Ianis Delpla, Isabelle Valois, Sabrina Simard, Manuel Rodriguez, and Maximilien Debia. The original draft of the manuscript was written by Elham Ahmadpour and Ianis Delpla, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Funding acquisition and project administration were done by Maximilien Debia, Sami Haddad, Manuel Rodriguez, and Robert Tardif. All authors read and approved the final manuscript to be published.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
This article does not involve any human participants and/or animals.
Informed consent
Not applicable.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ahmadpour, E., Delpla, I., Debia, M. et al. Full-scale multisampling and empirical modeling of DBPs in water and air of indoor pools. Environ Monit Assess 195, 1128 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11619-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11619-6