Abstract
The continued frequent detection of pharmaceuticals in the environment is of major concern due to potential human and ecological risks. This study evaluated 30 antibiotics from 8 classes: sulphonamides (SAs), penicillins (PNs), fluoroquinolones (FQs), macrolides (MLs), lincosamides (LINs), nitroimidazoles (NIs), diaminopyrimidines (DAPs), salfones and 4 anthelmintics benzimidazoles (BZs) in surface water and sediments from River Sosiani in Eldoret, Kenya. Samples were collected during the wet and dry seasons and subjected to solid phase extraction using HLB cartridges. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method was used for the simultaneous quantification of the compounds. Chromatographic separation was on a reversed-phase Zorkax Eclipse Plus C18 column eluted in a gradient program and compounds detected by mass spectrometer operated in a positive electrospray ionization (+ ESI) mode. Twenty-eight antibiotics were detected in water where 22 had a 100% detection frequency and the remaining 4 showed detection frequencies ranging from 5 to 47%. Three BZs had a 100% detection frequency. Detectable concentrations of the pharmaceuticals in water ranged between 0.1 and 247 ng L−1 and 0.01 and 974 µg kg−1 in the sediments. The sulfonamide, sulfamethoxazole, had the highest concentration in water (247 ng L−1), whereas penicillin G showed the highest concentrations in sediments (414–974 µg kg−1). Quantified pharmaceuticals decreased in the order SAs > DAPs > FQs > ATs > PNs ≈ MCs ≈ LNs > NIs in water, and followed the order PNs > BZs > FQs > MLs > DAPs ≈ LNs > NIs > SAs in sediments. Risk quotients (RQw) showed that sulfamethoxazole and ciprofloxacin were of high ecological risk in the surface water (RQw values of 1.11 and 3.24, respectively), whereas penicillin V, ampicillin, penicillin G, norfloxacin, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, tylosin, and lincomycin were of medium ecological risk in the aquatic system. The findings show high prevalence of pharmaceuticals in surface water and sediments and are therefore potential ecological hazards. Such information is vital when devising mitigation strategies.
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The authors are thankful to Africa Centre of Excellence in Phytochemicals, Textile, and Renewable Energy (ACE II-PTRE) for the financial support, National Research Fund (NRF) research grant No. NRF/2/MMC/666 for provision of reference standards and meeting cost of LC–MS/MS analysis.
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Catherine Chemtai conducted the sampling, did sample preparations, obtained funding from Africa Centre of Excellence in Phytochemicals, Textile, and Renewable Energy (ACE II-PTRE) for her studies, and wrote the initial manuscript draft. Fredrick O. Kengara and Anastasiah N. Ngigi obtained funds, did project conception and design, provided supervision, and contributed to the editing of the manuscript. Anastasiah N. Ngigi was involved in project administration, method validation, and optimization and carried out data analysis and interpretation. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
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Chemtai, C., Kengara, F.O. & Ngigi, A.N. Levels and ecological risk of pharmaceuticals in River Sosiani, Kenya. Environ Monit Assess 195, 431 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11022-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11022-1