Abstract
The effects of urbanization such as population upsurge, increased industrialization, urban agriculture, and rural–urban migration of persons exert pressure on the limited water resources in most cities. This study investigated the impact of human activities on the water and sediment quality of the three main rivers (Wiwi, Subin, and Suntre) in Kumasi, the second-largest city in Ghana. The physicochemical parameters and the concentrations of contaminants, including heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticide residues, and microbial loads in the rivers, were linked to the specific human activities at the riverbanks. While all the 37 pesticide residues investigated in river sediments had concentrations below the detection limits (0.005 mg/kg for organochlorines, 0.010 mg/kg for organophosphates, and 0.010 mg/kg for synthetic pyrethroids), the study showed that the sediments are polluted with petrogenic and pyrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. River Subin, the most polluted among the three rivers, recorded benzo[e]pyrene concentrations up to 47,169 µg/kg. The geoaccumulation index and concentration factors show that the rivers are highly contaminated with metals such as cadmium, chromium, mercury, and arsenic and are related to human activities. The microbial quality of the rivers was poor, recording specific microbial loads of 6.8, 4.1, and 1.5 × 107 counts/100 mL respectively for Wiwi, Subin, and the Suntre Rivers. The three water bodies are therefore not suitable for recreational and irrigational purposes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahammed Shabeer, T. P., Girame, R., Utture, S., Oulkar, D., Banerjee, K., Ajay, D., et al. (2018). Optimization of multi-residue method for targeted screening and quantitation of 243 pesticide residues in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) analysis. Chemosphere, 193, 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.133
Akanchise, T., Boakye, S., Borquaye, L. S., Dodd, M., & Darko, G. (2020). Distribution of heavy metals in soils from abandoned dump sites in Kumasi, Ghana. Scientific African, 10, e00614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00614
Akoto, O., Gyimah, E., Zhan, Z., Xu, H., & Nimako, C. (2020). Evaluation of health risks associated with trace metal exposure in water from the Barekese reservoir in Kumasi, Ghana. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26(4), 1134–1148. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1559033
Akrong, M. O., Amu-Mensah, F. K., Amu-Mensah, M. A., Darko, H., Addico, G. N. D., & Ampofo, J. A. (2019). Seasonal analysis of bacteriological quality of drinking water sources in communities surrounding Lake Bosomtwe in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Applied Water Science, 9(4), 82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0959-z
Amoateng, P., Finlayson, C. M., Howard, J., & Wilson, B. (2018). A multi-faceted analysis of annual flood incidences in Kumasi, Ghana. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 27, 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.09.044
Amponsah, L. O., Dodd, M., & Darko, G. (2020). Gastric bioaccessibility and human health risks associated with soil metal exposure via ingestion at an E-waste recycling site in Kumasi, Ghana. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00760-7
Ankar-Brewoo, G. M., Darko, G., Abaidoo, R. C., Dalsgaard, A., Johnson, P., Ellis, W. O., & Brimer, L. (2020). Dietary risk assessment due to the consumption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in two commonly consumed street vended foods. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2020.1830128
Bandowe, B. A. M., & Nkansah, M. A. (2016). Occurrence, distribution and health risk from polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs, oxygenated-PAHs and azaarenes) in street dust from a major West African Metropolis. Science of the Total Environment, 553, 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.142
Boadi, K. O., & Kuitunen, M. (2002). Urban waste pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana. The Environmentalist, 22(4), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020706728569
Boadi, N. O., Borquaye, L. S., Darko, G., Wemegah, D. D., Agorsor, D., & Akrofi, R. (2018). Assessment of the quality of the Owabi reservoir and its tributaries. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1), 1492360. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1492360
Darko, G., Dodd, M., Nkansah, M. A., Aduse-Poku, Y., Ansah, E., Wemegah, D. D., et al. (2017). Distribution and ecological risks of toxic metals in the topsoils in the Kumasi metropolis, Ghana. Cogent Environmental Science, 3(1), 1354965. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311843.2017.1354965
Deelaman, W., Pongpiachan, S., Tipmanee, D., Suttinun, O., Choochuay, C., Iadtem, N., et al. (2020). Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the terrestrial soils of King George Island, Antarctica. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 104, 102832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102832
Duncan, A. E., de Vries, N., Nyarko, K., & biritwum. (2018). Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in the Sediments of the River Pra and Its Tributaries. Water Air Soil Pollution, 229, 272. https://doi.org/10.1130/abs/2017SE-290796
Edokpayi, J. N., Odiyo, J. O., & Durowoju, O. S. (2017). Impact of wastewater on surface water quality in developing countries: A case study of South Africa. In Water Quality. InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/66561
El-Sayed, S. A., Moussa, E. M. M., & El-Sabagh, M. E. I. (2015). Evaluation of heavy metal content in Qaroun Lake, El-Fayoum, Egypt. Part I: Bottom sediments. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 8(3), 276–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2015.02.011
Findlay, S. E. G. (2021). Organic matter decomposition. In Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science (pp. 81–102). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812762-9.00004-6
Fosu-Mensah, B. Y., Okoffo, E. D., Darko, G., & Gordon, C. (2016). Organophosphorus pesticide residues in soils and drinking water sources from cocoa producing areas in Ghana. Environmental Systems Research, 5(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-016-0063-4
Gao, P., Xu, M., Liu, Y., da Silva, E. B., Xiang, P., & Ma, L. Q. (2019). Emerging and legacy PAHs in urban soils of four small cities: Concentrations, distribution, and sources. Science of the Total Environment, 685, 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.403
Garbowski, T. (2019). Changes in the physico-chemical parameters of water as a result of long-term contact with biomass, on the example of pine bark (Pinus sylvestris). Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 230(5), 104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-019-4160-7
García Ríos, A., Martínez, A. S., Londoño, Á. L., Restrepo, B., & Landázuri, P. (2020). Determination of organochlorine and organophosphorus residues in surface waters from the coffee zone in Quindío, Colombia. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2020.1802185
Gaurav, G. K., Mehmood, T., Kumar, M., Cheng, L., Sathishkumar, K., Kumar, A., & Yadav, D. (2021). Review on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) migration from wastewater. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 236, 103715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2020.103715
GEPA. (1994). The effluent guidelines for discharges into natural waters. Ghana Environmental Protection Agency Act 490. Accra, Ghana. Accra: Ghana Environmental Protection Agency.
GSS. (2010). 2010 Population and housing census of Ghana: District analytical report - Kumasi metropolitan. Ghana Statistical Service. Accra, Ghana. https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010_District_Report/Ashanti/KMA.pdf
Hageman, K. J., Aebig, C. H. F., Luong, K. H., Kaserzon, S. L., Wong, C. S., Reeks, T., et al. (2019). Current-use pesticides in New Zealand streams: Comparing results from grab samples and three types of passive samplers. Environmental Pollution, 254, 112973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.112973
Islam, M. S., Hossain, M. B., Matin, A., & Islam Sarker, M. S. (2018). Assessment of heavy metal pollution, distribution and source apportionment in the sediment from Feni River estuary, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 202, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.077
Jain, A., Jain, R., & Jain, S. (2020). Digital nephelometer. In Basic techniques in biochemistry, microbiology and molecular biology. Springer Protocols Handbooks. Humana, New York, NY. (pp. 23–24). Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9861-6_11
Januário, A. P., Afonso, C. N., Mendes, S., & Rodrigues, M. J. (2019). Faecal indicator bacteria and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in marine coastal waters: Is there a relationship? Pathogens, 9(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9010013
Jia, J., Bi, C., Zhang, J. J., & Chen, Z. (2019). Atmospheric deposition and vegetable uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) based on experimental and computational simulations. Atmospheric Environment, 204, 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.02.030
Keraita, B., Drechsel, P., & Amoah, P. (2003). Influence of urban wastewater on stream water quality and agriculture in and around Kumasi, Ghana. Environment and Urbanization, 15(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/095624780301500207
Kubier, A., Hamer, K., & Pichler, T. (2020). Cadmium background levels in groundwater in an area dominated by agriculture. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 16(1), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4198
Kumasi, T. C., Obiri-Danso, K., & Ephraim, J. H. (2011). Microbial quality of water in Barekese reservoir and feeder streams in Ghana. In Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 16, 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1770.2011.00464.x
Li, M., Zhang, Q., Sun, X., Karki, K., Zeng, C., Pandey, A., et al. (2020). Heavy metals in surface sediments in the trans-Himalayan Koshi River catchment: Distribution, source identification and pollution assessment. Chemosphere, 244, 125410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125410
Ma, J. (2017). Determination of chemical oxygen demand in aqueous samples with non-electrochemical methods. Trends in Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 14, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2017.05.002
Ma, J., Ding, Y., Cheng, J. C. P., Jiang, F., & Xu, Z. (2020). Soft detection of 5-day BOD with sparse matrix in city harbor water using deep learning techniques. Water Research, 170, 115350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115350
Magubane, S. E., Ntlhoro, S., Sabela, M., Kanchi, S., Mlambo, M., Onwubu, S. C., et al. (2019). Novel on-site residual screening of poly-diallyldimethylammonium chloride in treated potable water using gold nanoparticle based lovibond color filters. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 101, 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2019.04.048
Marozzi, M. (2013). Nonparametric simultaneous tests for location and scale testing: A comparison of several methods. Communications in Statistics - Simulation and Computation, 42(6), 1298–1317. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610918.2012.665546
Mbugua, S. (2017). Accra residents hope for healthier life with new sewage plant. Discover Thomson Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ghana-environment-water-health-idUSKBN17F207. Accessed 2 Oct 2020.
McGrath, J. A., Joshua, N., Bess, A. S., & Parkerton, T. F. (2019). Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) sediment quality guidelines for the protection of benthic life. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 15(4), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4142
Mishra, S., charan Rath, C., & Das, A. P. (2019, March 1). Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039
Monney, I. (2013). Urbanization and pollution of surface water resources in the two largest cities in Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 1(6), 279. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.20130106.12
Morin-Crini, N., Louzon, M., Amiot, C., & de Vaufleury, A. (2020). QuEChERS applicability to measure land snail polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for risk assessment. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 102(5–6), 209–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2020.1781855
Onyekwelu, I. L., & Aghamelu, O. P. (2019). Impact of organic contaminants from dumpsite leachates on natural water sources in the Enugu Metropolis, southeastern Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191(9), 543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7719-2
Opoku, P. A., Anornu, G. K., Gibrilla, A., Owusu-Ansah, E., De, G. J., Ganyaglo, S. Y., & Egbi, C. D. (2020). Spatial distributions and probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to heavy metals in groundwater in a peri-urban settlement: Case study of Atonsu-Kumasi, Ghana. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10, 100327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100327
Rain, D., Engstrom, R., Ludlow, C., & Antos, S. (2011). Accra Ghana: A city vulnerable to flooding and drought-induced migration. case study prepared for cities and climate change: Global report on human settlements 2011. Global Report on Human Settlements, 3–21. http://www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2011. Accessed 1 Oct 2020.
Rweyemamu, A. R., Nkansah, M. A., Darko, G., & Dodd, M. (2020). Contamination and human health risk due to toxic metals in dust from transport stations in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. Chemistry Africa, 3(3), 831–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-020-00174-z
Saadat, S., Bowling, L., Frankenberger, J., & Kladivko, E. (2018). Nitrate and phosphorus transport through subsurface drains under free and controlled drainage. Water Research, 142, 196–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.040
Saghir, J., & Santoro, J. (2018). Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa. Meeting challenges by bridging stakeholders. Center for Strategic & International Studies, 1–7. https://www.csis.org/analysis/urbanization-sub-saharan-africa
Setareh, P., Pirsaheb, M., Khezri, S. M., & Hossaini, H. (2021). Improving natural organic matter and turbidity removal from surface water by pre-coagulation combined with ozone/ultrasound. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 21(4), 1410–1422. https://doi.org/10.2166/WS.2020.323
UNEP. (2020). United Nation, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The 17 Goals. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sdgs.un.org/goals. Accessed 2 Oct 2020.
US EPA. (1988). Water quality standards criteria summaries: A compilation of state/federal criteria. Washington, D.C. 20460.
Varol, M. (2011). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Tigris River (Turkey) using pollution indices and multivariate statistical techniques. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 195, 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.08.051
Völker, S., & Kistemann, T. (2011). The impact of blue space on human health and well-being - Salutogenetic health effects of inland surface waters: A review. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 214(6), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.05.001
WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition (Fourth Edi.). Geneva 27, Switzerland. http://www.who.int. Accessed 25 Oct 2020.
WHO. (2017). Water quality and health - review of turbidity: Information for regulators and water suppliers: Information for regulators and water suppliers. WHO/FWC/WSH/17.01, 1–10. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254631/WHO-FWC-WSH-17.01-eng.pdf. Accessed 3 Oct 2020.
Acknowledgements
We are also grateful to the SHEATHE Project (www.sheathe.org) hosted by the Department of chemistry, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana, for using their laboratory resources.
Funding
This study was financially supported by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Research Fund (KReF).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Darko, G., Obiri-Yeboah, S., Takyi, S.A. et al. Urbanizing with or without nature: pollution effects of human activities on water quality of major rivers that drain the Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana. Environ Monit Assess 194, 38 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09686-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09686-8