Abstract
This study is intended to assess the natural radioactivity in the drinking water in the southern region of Lebanon and to determine its suitability for human consumption. In this context, activity concentrations for gross alpha, gross beta, 238U, 234U, and radon from selected drinking water sources, wells, and springs and the corresponding tap water, in the area under investigation, were determined during both the wet and the dry seasons. The maximum recorded activities of gross alpha, gross beta, and radon measured using liquid scintillation counter were found to be 374.6 ± 11.5 mBq L−1 for gross alpha, 418 ± 12 mBq L−1 for gross beta, and 42,900 ± 370 mBq L−1 for radon. Whereas, alpha spectroscopy analysis for uranium content showed maximum activities of 53.7 ± 2.1 mBq L−1 for 238U and 55.9 ± 2.3 mBq L−1 for 234U. Significant seasonal activity variation between wet and dry season was noticed only in gross alpha concentrations. In addition, significant variation between sources and tap water was recorded only in radon concentrations. Whereas, no significant variation was noted in radioactivity concentrations in waters from springs and those from wells. In contrast to all sampled locations, the annual effective dose of only one sampled well (Aitaroun) exceeded the WHO individual dose criterion (IDC) level of 100 µSv year−1 and recorded an annual effective dose of 170 µSv year−1, 103 µSv year−1, and 127 µSv year−1 for infants, children, and adults, respectively.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadi, A. A. M., Rahimi, M., & Koopaei, L. J. (2016). The effect of geological structure on radon concentration dissolved in groundwater in nearby Anar fault based on a statistical analysis. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 308(3), 801–807.
Abdallah, A., Habib, R., Nuwayhid, R., Chatila, M., & Katul, G. (2007). Radon measurement in well and spring water in Lebanon. Radiation Measurement, 298–303.
Aleissa, K., Alghamdi, A., Almasoud, F., & Islam, S. (2012). Measurement of Radon levels in groundwater supplies of riyadh with liquid scintillation counter and the associated radiation dose. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 1–9.
APHA. (2012). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. In. Washington DC: American Public Health Association.
Arrighi de Casanova, A. (2009). Modernizing Irrigated Agriculture in the Near East: experience feedback on the achievements of the French Mission for Water and Agriculture (MREA)(1993–2007). IPTRID Knowledge Synthesis Report (FAO).
Baeza, A., Salas, A., Guillén, J., Muñoz-Serrano, A., Ontalba-Salamanca, M. Á., & Jiménez-Ramos, M. C. (2017). Removal naturally occurring radionuclides from drinking water using a filter specifically designed for Drinking Water Treatment Plants. Chemosphere, 167, 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.148
Bajwa, B. S., Kumar, S., Singh, S., Sahoo, S. K., & Tripathi, R. M. (2017). Uranium and other heavy toxic elements distribution in the drinking water samples of SW-Punjab, India. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 10(1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2015.01.002
Belyaeva, O., Pyuskyulyan, K., Movsisyan, N., Saghatelyan, A., & Carvalho, F. P. (2019). Natural radioactivity in urban soils of mining centers in Armenia: Dose rate and risk assessment. Chemosphere, 225, 859–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.03.057
Boryło, A., & Skwarzec, B. (2014). Activity disequilibrium between 234 U and 238 U isotopes in natural environment. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 300(2), 719–727. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4513901/
Caridi, F., Messina, M., & D’Agostino, M. (2017). An investigation about natural radioactivity, hydrochemistry, and metal pollution in groundwater from Calabrian selected areas, southern Italy. Environmental Earth Sciences.
CAS. (2009). Population characteristics in 2009. http://www.cas.gov.lb/images/Mics3/MISC3_new/Population%20characteristics%20in%202009.pdf
Damla, N., Cevik, U., Karahan, G., Kobya, A. I., Kocak, M., & Isık, U. (2009). Determination of gross α and β activities in waters from Batman, Turkey. Desalination, 244(1), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.024
EC. . (2001). European Commission (2001) Commission recommendation of 20 December 2001 on the protection of the public against exposure to radon in drinking water supplies. Official Journal of European Community, L344, 385–387.
El-Mageed, A. I. A., El-Kamel, A.E.-H., Abbady, A.E.-B., Harb, S., & Saleh, I. I. (2013). Natural radioactivity of ground and hot spring water in some areas in Yemen. Desalination, 321, 28–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.11.022
El Samad, O., Alayan, R., Baydoun, R., & Zaidan, W. (2012). Radiation baseline levels in Lebanon: Environmental survey and public dose assessment. Lebanese Science Journal, 37–48.
El Samad, O., Baydoun, R., Aoun, M., Zaidan, W., & El Jeaid, H. (2016). Public exposure to radioactivity levels in the Lebanese environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(2), 2010–2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7911-7
Faour, G. (2004). Forest fire fighting in Lebanon using remote sensing and GIS.
Galhardi, J. A., & Bonotto, D. M. (2017). Radionuclides (222Rn, 226Ra, 234U, and 238U) release in natural waters affected by coal mining activities in Southern Brazil. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 228(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3381-x
Görür, F. K., Keser, R., Dizman, S., & Okumuşoğlu, N. T. (2011). Annual effective dose and concentration levels of gross α and β in various waters from Samsun, Turkey. Desalination, 279(1), 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.05.071
Habib, R. R., Nuwayhid, R. Y., Hamdan, Z., Alameddine, I., & Katul, G. (2018). Indoor and outdoor radon concentration levels in Lebanon. Health Physics, 115(3), 344–353.
Hashim, A. K., Al Safaay, B. R., & Fulyful, F. K. (2014). Study of Radon and Radium Concentration in Water Samples in Some Regions of Lebanon. Journal of Kerbala University, 12(2), 209–215.
Hu, Q. H., Weng, J. Q., & Wang, J. S. (2010). Sources of anthropogenic radionuclides in the environment: a review. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 101(6), 426–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2008.08.004
ICRP. (2009). International Commission on Radiological Protection Statement on Radon, ICRP Ref 00/902/09.
Ielsch, G., Cuney, M., Buscail, F., Rossi, F., Leon, A., & Cushing, M. E. (2017). Estimation and mapping of uranium content of geological units in France. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 166(Pt 2), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.05.022
Inácio, M., Soares, S., & Almeida, P. (2017). Radon concentration assessment in water sources of public drinking of Covilhã’s county, Portugal. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 10(2), 135–139.
Jankovic, M. M., Todorovic, D. J., Todorovic, N. A., & Nikolov, J. (2012). Natural radionuclides in drinking waters in Serbia. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 70(12), 2703–2710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2012.08.013
Jowzaee, S. (2013). Determination of selected natural radionuclide concentrations in southwestern Caspian groundwater using liquid scintillation counting. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 157(2), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/nct132
Khan, F., Ali, N., Khan, E., Khattak, N., & Khan, K. (2009). Radon monitoring in water sources of Balakot and Mansehra cities lying on a geological fault line. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 138(2), 174–179. https://watermark.silverchair.com/ncp214.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAlYwggJSBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggJDMIICPwIBADCCAjgGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMTSnhl0-nAsIjqLGiAgEQgIICCRsQc9yG7b6mrpiPJqRakV-Gd95bM30Rbe10criCF2GzjkW9FbKTe2E1nNMJF_kIwQRHFeoLJjTCsrWDX8N-5lGj3_0URGZrloLnX2DqcaQxOs8kO-R0zOYJB5y1Aq5yMLq8UyIo-sK60e4eKh5--GQfJ7_255zl3cPQdVT1sZagBO4RIMq1zwLx29_iSXN4ZUkoT92bb6vYVQB1l_xPGrJsA1myuueyl8QGdy7LbKGnnW3VB6TAIs6hWsEXJq-qyCcqhO2vnWmdUqmFKMJoCRvBjMVV2Tk405_snOOStWvUCU3I6PSW6scRxM882-q4G8NA2Rec_Z08MCLJ-9uX4z1oaJ-BuWiXe-AGrRjOvJLBE8RcWHsN5gIlYi13L3ViSivAkXsxQcMmAFxSvQIncfPRG5Pg1i-_-N41hx2HxkTp2KB_uan55N-d6c-2YcCuvizqJCXZiql-xPtS5nl1_Iw9zWD0wiaej23zZnQrn16Xz8VB2wGqIf28SfcXEvLcDfrq98KvbmlBS3lSRiH3wq8qUUJahE-X635LRv4VqRhm49COTedOHE_vI6THzoUxI0glGDMtV58oOfFNxkm5W9GJfetY4ee743MJTHOEq_8VAX-NXqW7txhZaPyLqgFMWfGtv-rpnLYwVBj6CRi9EE-pO4e3uyG3rpqv6JNvWOmYKHLb0WtrOitI
Kobeissi, M., El Samad, O., Zahraman, K., & Rachidi, I. (2014). Assessment of indoor and outdoor Radon levels in South Lebanon. International Journal Disaster Risk Science, 214–226.
L’Annuziata, M. F. (2012). Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. Academic Press.
LARI. (2018). Weather data in South of Lebanon (Jan 2015 till Sep 2018) Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute.
LIBNOR. (2016). LIBNOR Standard for drinking water NL 161–2016. In. Lebanon: Lebanese Standards Institution.
Lowson, R. T., & McIntyre, M. G. (2013). 234U/238U signatures associated with uranium ore bodies: part 1 Ranger 3. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 118, 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2012.10.005
MEW. (2010). National Water Sector Strategy 2010–2020. M. o. E. a. Water. http://climatechange.moe.gov.lb/viewfile.aspx?id=182
MOE. (1996). Decision 52/1 Specifications and percentages related to the reduction of air, water and soil pollution Official Journal(45).
MOE. (2001). Lebanon State of the Environment. M. o. Environment. http://www.cas.gov.lb/images/Mics3/CAS_MICS3_survey_2009.pdf
MoEW/UNDP. (2014). Assessment of Groundwater Resources of Lebanon.
MOI. (1999). Decree 1039 Mandating the specifications related to drinking water. Official Journal, 39.
NRC. (1977). Drinking Water and Health: Volume 1. National Research Council.
Passo, C. J., & Cook, G. T. (1993). Handbook of Environmental Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry: A Compilationof Theory and Methods. Packard Instrument Company.
Pearson, A. J., Gaw, S., Hermanspahn, N., & Glover, C. N. (2016). Natural and anthropogenic radionuclide activity concentrations in the New Zealand diet. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 151(Pt 3), 601–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2015.05.022
Rishi, M. S., Keesari, T., Sharma, D. A., Pant, D., & Sinha, U. K. (2017). Spatial trends in uranium distribution in groundwaters of Southwest Punjab, India - A hydrochemical perspective. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 311(3), 1937–1945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-017-5178-1
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M., Fernández-Ayuso, A., Hayashi, M., & Moral-Martos, F. (2018). Using water temperature, electrical conductivity, and pH to Characterize surface–groundwater relations in a shallow ponds system (Doñana National Park, SW Spain). Water, 10(10), 1406.
Shweikani, R., & Raja, G. (2015). Natural radionuclides monitoring in drinking water of Homs city. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 106, 333–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2014.08.016
Smidt, G. A. (2011). Mobility of fertiliser-derived uranium in arable soils and its contribution to uranium concentrations in groundwater and tap water. Jacobs University. https://d-nb.info/1035267578/34
Stalder, E., Blanc, A., Haldimann, M., & Dudler, V. (2012). Occurrence of uranium in Swiss drinking water. Chemosphere, 86(6), 672–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.11.022
Sushanta Ku, S., Katlamudi, M., Shaji, J. P., Krishna, K. S. M., & Lakshmi, G. U. (2018). Influence of meteorological parameters on the soil radon (Rn<sup>222</sup>) emanation in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6434-0
Turhan, S., Ozcitak, E., Taskin, H., & Varinlioglu, A. (2013). Determination of natural radioactivity by gross alpha and beta measurements in ground water samples. Water Research, 47(9), 3103–3108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.03.030
UNSCEAR. (2000). Report: Sources and effects of ionizing radiation United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. United Nations.
USAEC. (1963). Uranium in carbonate rocks Geological survey professional paper 474 - A. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0474a/report.pdf
Walley, C. D. (1997). The lithostratigraphy of Lebanon: a review. Lebanese Science Bulletin, 10(1), 81–107.
Wang, S., Ye, C., Liu, J., Lin, P., Liu, K., Dong, P., Sun, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, L., & Wang, G. (2017). Natural radioactivity of geothermal water in Beijing, China. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 314(3), 1547–1555.
WHO. (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: recommendations (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.
WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (WHO chronicle, Issue.
WHO. (2017). Guidelines for drinking water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum.
Zapata-Garcia, D., Llaurado, M., & Rauret, G. (2009). Establishment of a method for the rapid measurement of gross alpha and gross beta activities in sea water. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 67(5), 978–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2009.01.081
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Environmental Engineering Research Center and the Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission (LAEC) of the National Council for Scientific Research in Lebanon for permitting the use of their facilities to conduct the study. Also, Dr. Maria Aoun and Dr. Rana Bilbeisi are thanked for their assistance and valuable comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mourad, S., Ayoub, G.M., Al Hindi, M. et al. Occurrence and hazard assessment of natural radioactivity in drinking water in South Lebanon. Environ Monit Assess 193, 358 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09133-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09133-8