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Determination of illicit drugs and psychoactive pharmaceuticals in wastewater from the area of Thessaloniki (Greece) using LC–MS/MS: estimation of drug consumption

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Abstract

This study presents the development of an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of multiclass illicit drugs (cocainoids, opiates, amphetamines, and cannabinoids) and psychoactive pharmaceuticals (anxiolytics, hypnotics, antipsychotics, antidepressants, and antiparkinsonian), in municipal wastewater. The analytical method was validated in terms of specificity, linearity, precision, and accuracy. The recoveries (%) for the majority of the analytes ranged between 70 and 120%, while the method showed good repeatability (2.4–29.2%). The limits of detection (LOD) of the method ranged between 0.8 and 9.4 ng L−1. The method was implemented on influent and effluent samples from Thessaloniki (N. Greece) wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), and it revealed the daily presence of benzoylecgonine (BEG) (84.0–202.2 ng L−1), methadone (12.3–17.5 ng L−1), 11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) (80.3–171.9 ng L−1), morphine (144.2–264.3 ng L−1), and 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) (5.8–12.0 ng L−1) in the influent samples of WWTP. Clozapine (101.6–315.5 ng L−1), quetiapine (33.5–109.7 ng L−1), and fluoxetine (20.9–124.4 ng L−1) were pharmaceutical psychotics with the highest concentration in the influents. Back calculation estimated that the daily consumption of cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and methadone was 36–95, 86–164, 2300–5400, and 8–12 mg day−1 per 1000 inhabitants, respectively. The consumption was estimated between 7–16 and 15 mg day−1 per 1000 inhabitants for methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), respectively.

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The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank “Stavros Niarchos Foundation” for the provision and funding of the Waters Acquity UPLC-TQD MS/MS system.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Christophoros Christophoridis, Sofia Veloutsou, Elena Mitsika, Christina Christia & Konstantinos Fytianos

  2. Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Constantinos K. Zacharis

  3. Laboratory of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Nikolaos Raikos

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  1. Christophoros Christophoridis
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  2. Sofia Veloutsou
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Highlights

• Application of a validated LC-ESI-MS/MS method for the determination of illicit drugs/pharmaceuticals

• First-time analysis of WWTP samples from Thessaloniki, N. Greece

• Estimation of illicit drug consumption using sewage epidemiology approach

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Christophoridis, C., Veloutsou, S., Mitsika, E. et al. Determination of illicit drugs and psychoactive pharmaceuticals in wastewater from the area of Thessaloniki (Greece) using LC–MS/MS: estimation of drug consumption. Environ Monit Assess 193, 249 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09035-9

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