Skip to main content

Assessment of water quality and hydrogeochemical processes of Salda alkaline lake (Burdur, Turkey)

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment volume 191, Article number: 701 (2019) Cite this article

Abstract

Salda Lake is one of the rare alkaline lakes in the world. In this study, the major and trace element contents of the Salda Lake water were analysed in two periods. Lake water samples were taken at the surface, at 10 m and 20 m depths. The pH and EC values of the lake water varied from 9.08 to 9.34 and from 1690 to 2124 μS/cm, respectively. The dominant water type of the lake water was Mg–CO3–HCO3. The high Mg content in the lake water originated from the weathering of ultramafic rocks which were located in the lake basin. All of the Ca, Cl and SO4 contents were high in surface samples in the dry period. The CO3 and HCO3 contents of the lake water did not show a change with depth and were constant in the wet period. The Mg, Na and K contents of the lake water increased depending on the depth in both periods, while CO3 and HCO3 contents showed depth-dependent increases only in the dry period. Weathering processes and anthropogenic inputs are the largest dissolution mechanisms that control the chemical structure of the lake water. The Salda Lake water is generally classified as class I in terms of T, DO, oxygen saturation, NH4 and NO2 parameters according to the SWQR and USEPA regulations. But, the water is in classes II, III, IV and V with respect to pH, EC, NO3, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), oxygen saturation, As and Cr in the different periods. The increase in the As and Cr concentrations is geogenic in origin and is related to the lithological units that interact with the bottom and surroundings of the lake.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

References

  • A.O.A.C. (1995). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 16 ed. Official methods of analysis AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD March 1998 revision.

  • Al-Othman, A. (2015). Seasonal variations in surface water quality index of the mainstream running through Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Research Journal of Environmental Toxicology, 9(2), 71–89.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. (2010). Preparation of basin conservation action plans-Burdur Basin, TÜBİTAK-MAM Environmental Institute Report. (in Turkish)

  • Appelo, C. A. J., & Postma, D. (1993). Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. Rotterdam: AA Balkema.

    Google Scholar 

  • AWWA. (1995). Chemical oxygen demand, argentometric method. In Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater 4(49) (pp. 5–12). Washington: American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilgin, R., Karaman, T., Öztürk, Z., Sen, M. A., & Demirci, A. R. (1990). Geology of Yesilova-Acıgöl surrounding, Mineral Research & Exploration General Directorate report no:64 (in Turkish).

  • Braithwaite, C. J. R., & Zedef, V. (1994). Living hydromagnesite stromatolites in Turkey. Sedimentary Geology, 92, 1–5.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, C. J. R., & Zedef, V. (1996). Hydromagnesite stromatolites and sediments in an alkaline lake, Salda Gölü, Turkey. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66, 991–1002.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clesceri, L. S., Greenberg, A. E., & Eaton, A. D. (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 20th ed. American Public Health Association (APHA) American Water Works Association (AWWA) and Water Environment Federation (WEF), Washington, DC March 1998 revision.

  • Datta, P. S., Tyagi, S.K. (1996). Major ion chemistry of groundwater in Delhi area: chemical weathering processes and groundwater regime. Journal of Geological Society of India, 47:179–188.

  • Del Giorgio, P. A., & Peters, R. H. (1994). Patterns in planktonic P:R ratios in lakes: influence of lake trophy and dissolved organic carbon. Limnology and Oceanography, 39, 772–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorgij, A. D., Wu, J., & Moghadam, A. A. (2019). Groundwater quality ranking using the improved entropy TOPSIS method: a case study in Azarshahr plain aquifer, east Azerbaijan, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25(1-2), 176–190.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeelani, G., & Shah, A. Q. (2006). Geochemical characteristics of water and sediment from the Dal Lake, Kashmir Himalaya: constraints on weathering and anthropogenic activity. Environmental Geology, 50, 12–23.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, N., Revenga, C., & Echeverria, J. (2001). Managing water for people and nature. Science, 292(5519), 1071–1072.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, P. V., & Jacob, C. (2010). Physicochemical characteristics of Pennar River, a fresh water wetland in Kerala, India. E-Journal of Chemistry, 7(4), 1266–1273.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazancı, N., Girgin, S., & Dugel, M. (2004). On the limnology of Salda Lake, a large and deep soda lake in southwestern Turkey: future management proposals. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 14, 151–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khatri, N., & Tyagi, S. (2015). Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on surface and groundwater quality in rural and urban areas. Frontiers in Life Science, 8(1), 23–39.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, M., Kumari, K., Singh, U.K. Ramananthan, A.L. (2009). Hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Muktsar, Punjab: conventional graphical and multivariate statistical approach. Environmental Geology 57, 873–884.

  • Kumar, S.K., Chandrasekar, N., Seralathan, P., Godson, P.S., Magesh, N.S. (2012). Hydrogeochemical study of shallow carbonate aquifers, Rameswaram Island, India. Environmental Monitoring Assessment 184, 4127–4138

  • Li, P., Wu, J., Qian, H., Zhang, Y., Yang, N., Jing, L., & Yu, P. (2016a). Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater in and around a wastewater irrigated forest in the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 8(3), 331–348.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Zhang, Y., Yang, N., Jing, L., & Yu, P. (2016b). Major ion chemistry and quality assessment of groundwater in and around a mountainous tourist town of China. Exposure and Health, 8(2), 239–252.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Feng, W., Xue, C., Tian, R., & Wang, S. (2017). Spatiotemporal variability of contaminants in lake water and their risks to human health: a case study of the Shahu Lake tourist area, northwest China. Exposure and Health, 9(3), 213–225.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., He, S., He, X., & Tian, R. (2018a). Seasonal hydrochemical characterization and groundwater quality delineation based on matter element extension analysis in a paper wastewater irrigation area, northwest China. Exposure and Health, 10(4), 241–258.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., He, S., Yang, N., & Xiang, G. (2018b). Groundwater quality assessment for domestic and agricultural purposes in Yan’an City, northwest China: implications to sustainable groundwater quality management on the Loess Plateau. Environmental Earth Science, 77(23), 775.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Tian, R., & Liu, R. (2019a). Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the Guohua Phosphorite Mine, Guizhou Province, China. Exposure and Health, 11(2), 81–94.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., He, X., Li, Y., & Xiang, G. (2019b). Occurrence and health implication of fluoride in groundwater of Loess aquifer in the Chinese Loess Plateau: A Case Study of Tongchuan, Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 11(2), 95–107.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mallick, J. (2017). Hydrogeochemical characteristics and assessment of water quality in the Al-Saad Lake, Abha Saudi Arabia. Applied Water Science, 7, 2869–2882.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manish, K., Ramanathan, A., Rao, M. S., & Kumar, B. (2006). Identification and evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Delhi, India. Journal of Environmental Geology, 50, 1025–1039.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mantzafleri, N., Psilovikos, A., & Blanta, A. (2009). Water quality monitoring and modeling in Lake Kastoria, using GIS. Assessment and Management of Pollution Sources. Water Resources Management, 23(15), 3221–3254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed, E. A., El-Kammar, A. M., Yehia, M. M., & Abu Salem, H. S. (2015). Hydrogeochemical evolution of inland lakes’ water: a study of major element geochemistry in the Wadi El Raiyan depression, Egypt. Journal of Advanced Research, 6, 1031–1044.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Njenga, J. W. (2004). Comparative studies of water chemistry of four tropical lakes in Kenya and India. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 1(2), 87–97.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oelkers, E. H., & Schott, J. (2005). Geochemical aspects of CO2 sequestration. Chemical Geology, 217, 183–186.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oelkers, E. H., Gislason, S. R., & Matter, J. (2008). Mineral carbonation of CO2. Elements, 4, 333–338.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • On Akçer, S., On, Z. B., Çağatay, N., Eris, K. K., Sakınç, M., & Wulf, S., et al., (2017). High resolution Middle-Late Holocene climatic records from Lake Salda (W. Anatolia) sediments. 70th Geological Congress of Turkey, 10-14 April 2017, Abstract book:108-111.

  • Pecoraino, G., D’Alessandro, W., & Inguaggiato, S. (2015). The other side of the coin: geochemistry of alkaline lakes in volcanic areas. In D. Rouwet, B. Christenson, F. Tassi, & J. Vandemeulebrouck (Eds.), Volcanic lakes, Advances in Volcanology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36833-2_9.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Piper, A. M. (1944). A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Transactions American Geophysical Union, 25, 914–928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M. J., Ingham, J. K., Zedef, V., Maktav, D., Sunar, F., Hall, A. J., & Fallick, A. E. (1999). Search for signs of ancient life on mars: expectations from hydromagnesite microbialites, Salda Lake, Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society, 156, 869–888.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahinci, A. (1991). Geochemistry of natural waters. Izmir: The Reform Printing Office (in Turkish).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. (1987). Turkey’s Salda Lake: a genetic model for Australia’s newly discovered magnesite deposits. Industrial Minerals (pp. 19–29).

  • Senel, M., Selçuk, H., Bilgin, Z. R., Sen, A. M., Karaman, T., & Dinçer, M. A., et al. (1989). Geology of the Çameli (Denizli)-Yesilova (Burdur)-Elmalı (Antalya) and the northern part. Mineral Research & Exploration General Directorate Rep: 9429 (unpublished), Ankara-Turkey (in Turkish).

  • Senel, M., Akyürek, B., Can, N., Aksay, A., Pehlivan, N., Bulut, V., & Aydal, N. (1997). Geology maps of Turkey, Denizli-M23 sheet, Mineral Research & Exploration General Directorate publications, Ankara-Turkey (in Turkish).

  • Sener, S., Davraz, A., & Karagüzel, R. (2013). Evaluating the anthropogenic and geologic impacts on water quality of the Egirdir Lake. Turkey, Environmental Earth Sciences, 70, 2527–2544.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sener, S., Davraz, A., & Karagüzel, R. (2014). Assessment of trace metal contents in water and bottom sediments from Egirdir Lake, Turkey. Environmental Earth Sciences, 71, 2807–2819.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sezer, B. (2004). Crystallization mechanism and SI (saturation index) properties of current magnesium stems in Salda Lake. Master thesis, Istanbul Technique University, Istanbul, Turkey, 144 p (in Turkish).

  • Shirokova, L. S., Mavromatis, V., Bundeleva, I. A., Pokrovsky, O. S., Bénézeth, P., Gérard, E., et al. (2013). Using Mg isotopes to trace cyanobacterially mediated magnesium carbonate precipitation in alkaline lakes. Aquatic Geochemistry, 19, 1–24.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasamoorthy, K., Gopinath, M., Chidambaram, S., Vasanthavigar, M., Sarma, V.S., 2014. Hydrochemical characterization and quality appraisal of groundwater from Pungar sub-basin, Tamilnadu, India. Journal of King Saud University - Science, 26, 37–52

  • Srivastava, N., Harit, G.H., Srivastava, R. (2009). A study of physicochemical characteristics of lakes around Jaipur. India J Environ Biol 30(5), 889–894

  • SWQR. (2015). Surface water quality regulation. Official Gazette Republic of Turkey Date: 15042015 No: 29327 (in Turkish)

  • Su, F., Wu, J., He, S. (2019). Set pair analysis-Markov chain model for groundwater quality assessment and prediction: A case study of Xi’an city, China. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25:1–2, 158–175.

  • Tao, Y., Yuan, Z., Fengchang, W., & Wei, M. (2013). Six-decade change in water chemistry of large freshwater Lake Taihu, China. Environmental Science Technology, 47, 9093–9101.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tian, R., & Wu, J. (2019). Groundwater quality appraisal by improved set pair analysis with game theory weightage and health risk estimation of contaminants for Xuecha drinking water source in a loess area in Northwest China. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25(1-2), 132–157.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2015). Surface water quality standards, chapter 62-302, Office of Water US Environmental Protection. Washington: Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2000). Drinking water regulations and health advisories. Washington DC: USEPA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varol, S., Davraz, A., Sener, S., Sener, E., Aksever, F., Kırkan, B., & Tokgözlü, A. (2017). Monitoring the hydrogeology and hydrogeochemical properties and detecting pollution situation of the Salda Lake wetland, TÜBİTAK ÇAYDAG project report, Project No: 114Y084.

  • Varol, S., Davraz, A., Sener, S., Sener, E., Aksever, F., Kırkan, B., & Tokgözlü, A. (2018). Application of a conceptual water budget model for Salda Lake, (Burdur/Turkey). Journal of Engineering Sciences and Design, 6(1), 29–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Zhu, L., Wang, Y., Ju, J., Xie, M., & Daut, G. (2010). Comparisons between the chemical compositions of lake water, inflowing river water, and lake sediment in Nam Co, central Tibetan Plateau, China and their controlling mechanisms. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 36, 587–595.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Li, P., Qian, H., Duan, Z., & Zhang, X. (2014a). Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan, China. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7(10), 3973–3982.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Q., Xia, X. H., Li, X. H., & Mou, X. L. (2014b). Impacts of meteorological variations on urban lake water quality: a sensitivity analysis for 12 urban lakes with different trophic states. Aquatic Science, 76, 339–351.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Xue, C., Tian, R., & Wang, S. (2017). Lake water quality assessment: a case study of Shahu Lake in the semi-arid loess area of northwest China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76, 232.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Li, P., Wang, D., Ren, X., & Wei, M. (2019). Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156.

  • Zedef, V., Russell, M. J., Fallick, A. E., & Hall, A. J. (2000). Genesis of vein stockwork and sedimentary magnesite and hydromagnesite deposits in the ultrafamic terranes of southwestern Turkey: a stable isotope study. Economic Geology, 95, 429–446.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study has been supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) with project no.: 114Y084.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

    Aysen Davraz, Sehnaz Sener & Fatma Aksever

  2. Water Institute, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

    Simge Varol & Bülent Kırkan

  3. Remote Sensing Centre, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

    Erhan Sener

  4. Department of Geography, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

    Ahmet Tokgözlü

Authors
  1. Aysen Davraz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Simge Varol
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erhan Sener
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sehnaz Sener
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Fatma Aksever
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bülent Kırkan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Ahmet Tokgözlü
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aysen Davraz.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Davraz, A., Varol, S., Sener, E. et al. Assessment of water quality and hydrogeochemical processes of Salda alkaline lake (Burdur, Turkey). Environ Monit Assess 191, 701 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7889-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7889-y

Keywords

  • Alkaline lake
  • Hydrochemistry
  • Water quality
  • Salda Lake