Skip to main content

Seagrass restoration in Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu, Southeast India: a viable management tool

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment volume 191, Article number: 430 (2019) Cite this article

Abstract

Seagrass beds are important marine ecosystems that provide significant ecological services. The global decline of seagrass beds is becoming severe due to the increasing pressure of human-induced factors and changing climatic conditions. Restoration of seagrasses is an evolving science that started in 1939. In this study, we report a remarkably successful restoration activity carried out in the Gulf of Mannar (GoM), Southeast India. This is the first wide-scale effort in Indian waters. After the initial experimentation, manual transplantation of seagrass sprigs was carried out near Vaan and Koswari islands in GoM. Transplantation was performed with PVC quadrats and jute twines in areas of 800 m2 in both the islands during February to May 2014. An increase from 16.4 ± 0.3 to 32.3 ± 0.6% in Vaan and from 15.1 ± 0.2 to 35.1 ± 0.9% in Koswari was observed in seagrass percentage cover during the period from June 2014 to May 2016. Area cover, shoot density, macrofaunal density and fish density increased at the restoration sites after the transplantation. Bottom trawling was found to be the most serious threat to the seagrass beds in these islands. This method of transplantation can be replicated in other areas of degraded seagrass in India to carry out wide-scale restoration of seagrasses.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

References

  • Asha, P. S., Johnson, B., Ranjith, L., Vivekanandan, E., Subin, C.S. & Sheik Mohamed, M. (2015). An evaluation of the current conservation measures on sea cucumber stocks in Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar of India. Technical Report. ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi.

  • Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. M., Stier, A. C., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81, 169–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayraktarov, E., Saunders, M. I., Abdullah, S., Mills, M., Beher, J., Possingham, H. P., Mumby, P. J., & Lovelock, C. E. (2016). The cost and feasibility of marine coastal restoration. Ecological Applications, 26(4), 1055–1074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, M. W., Heck, K. L., Able, K. W., Childers, D. L., Eggleston, D. G., Gillanders, B. M., Halpern, B., Hays, C. G., Hoshino, K., Minella, T. J., Orth, R. J., Sheridan, P. F., & Weinstein, M. P. (2001). The identification, conservation and management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates. BioScience, 51, 633–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bensam, P. & Udhayashankar, T. R. (1990). Colonization and growth of the seagrasses Halodule uninervis (Forskal) Aschers and Halophila ovalis (R.Br.) Hooker f. in marine culture ponds at Mandapam. The Second Indian Fisheries Forum, Abstract No. 91.

  • Bologna, P., & Sinnema, M. (2006). Assessing the success of eelgrass restoration in New Jersey. In S. Treat & R. Lewis (Eds.), Seagrass restoration: success, failure and the costs of both (pp. 79–90). Valrico: Lewis Environmental Services, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom, C., & Mattila, J. (1999). The relative importance of food and shelter for seagrass associated invertebrates—a latitudinal comparison of habitat choice by isopod grazers. Oecologia, 120, 162–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom, C., Jackson, E. L., & Simenstad, C. A. (2006). Seagrass landscapes and their effects on associated fauna: a review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 68, 383–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, M. P., & Stolt, M. H. (2006). Landscape-level seagrass–sediment relations in a coastal lagoon. Aquatic Botany, 84, 121–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camp, E. F., Suggett, D. J., Gendron, G., Jompa, J., Manfrino, C., & Smith, D. J. (2016). Mangrove and seagrass beds provide different biogeochemical services for corals threatened by climate change. Frontiers in Marine Science l3, 3–9.

  • Christensen, P. B., Almela, E. D., & Diekmann, O. (2004). Can transplanting accelerate the recovery of seagrasses? In C. M. Duarte, D. Krause-Jensen, & T. M. Greve (Eds.), European seagrasses: an introduction to monitoring and management (pp. 77–82). Borum: The monitoring and management of European seagrasses, EVK3-CT-2000-00044.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowder, L. B., & Cooper, W. E. (1982). Habitat structural complexity and the interaction between bluegills and their prey. Ecology, 63, 1802–1813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R. C., Reel, J. T., Short, F. T., & Montoya, D. (2006). Costs and success of large-scale eelgrass (Zostera marine L.) plantings in New England (New Hampshire and Maine). In S. Treat & R. Lewis (Eds.), Seagrass restoration: success, failure and the costs of both (pp. 103–114). Valrico: Lewis Environmental Services, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, C. M., Alvarez, E., Grau, A. & Krause-Jensen, D. (2004). Which monitoring strategy should be chosen? In C. M. Borun, D. Krause-Jensen, & T. M. Greve, (Eds.), Seagrasses: an introduction to monitoring and management (pp. 41–44).

  • Edward, J. K. P., Patterson, J. & Wilhelmson, D. (2008). Conservation of coral reefs and seagrasses of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Southeastern India: significant contributions from SDMRI during 2000-2008. SDMRI Special Research Publication No. 13.

  • Edward, J. K. P., Mathews, G., Raj, K. D., Laju, R. L., Bharath, M. S., Arasamuthu, A., Kumar, P. D., Bilgi, S. D., & Malleshappa, H. (2018). Coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India, due to bleaching caused by elevated sea temperature in 2016. Current Science, 114(9), 1967–1972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehringer, J. N. (2000). New and innovative techniques for seagrass restoration. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth Annual Conference on Ecosystem Restoration and Creation (pp. 18–24). Tampa: Hillsborough Community College.

  • English, S., Wilkinson, C., & Baker, V. (1997). Line intercept transect. In S. English, C. Wilkinson, & V. Baker (Eds.), Survey manual for tropical marine resources (pp. 34–51). Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, N. T., & Short, F. T. (2005). Functional trajectory models for assessment of transplanted eelgrass, Zostera marina L., in the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire. Estuaries, 28(6), 936–947.

  • Fonseca, M. S. (1992). Restoring seagrass systems in the United States. In G. W. Thayer (Ed.), Restoring the nation’s marine environment (pp. 92–106). College Park: Maryland Sea Grant College Publ. UM-SG-TS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca, M. S, Kenworthy, W. J. & Thayer, G.W. (1998). Guidelines for mitigation and restoration of seagrass in the United States and adjacent waters. NOAA COP/Decision Analysis Series 12.

  • Fonseca, M. S., Kenworthy, W. J., Julius, B. E., Shutler, S., & Fluke, S. (2001). Handbook of ecological restoration. Chapter 7: seagrasses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca, M. S., Robbins, B. D., Whitfield, P. E. Wood, I. & Clinton, P. (2002). Evaluating the effect of offshore sandbars on seagrass recovery and restoration in Tampa Bay through ecological forecasting and hindcasting of exposure to waves. Tampa Bay Estuary Program, St. Petersburg, Florida.

  • Gilinsky, E. (1984). The role of fish predation and spatial heterogeneity in determining benthic community structure. Ecology, 65, 455–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, D. M. (1996). Status of seagrass restoration: review of international literature. In D. Le Provost, P. Moore (Eds). Western Australia.

  • Heck, K. L., & Valentine, J. F. (2006). Plant–herbivore interactions in seagrass meadows. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 330, 420–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemminga, M. A. & Duarte, C. M. (2000). Seagrass ecology. Cambridge University Press.

  • Hughes, J. E., Deegan, L. A., Wyda, J. C., Weaver, M. J., & Wright, A. (2002). The effects of eelgrass habitat loss on estuarine fish communities of southern New England. Estuaries and Coasts, 25, 235–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. L. (1970). Procedures in sedimentary petrology. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jagtap, T. G. (1991). Distribution of seagrass along the Indian coast. Aquatic Botany, 40, 379–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jagtap, T. G., Komarpant, D. S., & Rodrigues, R. S. (2003). Status of a seagrass ecosystem: an ecologically sensitive wetland habitat from India. Wetlands, 23, 161–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, M. J. & De Groot, S. J. (2000). The effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats: biological, conservation and socio-economic issues.

  • Kelly, N. M., Fonseca, M., & Whitfield, P. (2001). Predictive mapping for management and conservation of seagrass beds in North Carolina. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 11, 437–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. R., III, Marshall, M. J., Bloom, S. A., Hodgson, A. B., & Flynn, L. L. (2006). Evaluation of the success of seagrass mitigation at Port Manatee, Tampa Bay, Florida. In S. Treat & R. Lewis (Eds.), Seagrass restoration: success, failure and the costs of both (pp. 19–40). Valrico: Lewis Environmental Services, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, X. J., Zhou, Y., Yang, H. S., & Ru, S. G. (2013). Eelgrass detritus as a food source for the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus Selenka (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) in coastal waters of North China: an experimental study in flow-through systems. PLoS One, 8, e58293.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, G., Raj, K. D., Thinesh, T., Rajesh, S., Jamila, P., & Edward, J. K. P. (2010). Preliminary baseline data on marine flora and fauna of Kudankulam coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India. South Indian Coastal and Marine Bulletin, 2, 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moncreiff, C. A., & Sullivan, M. J. (2001). Trophic importance of epiphytic algae in subtropical seagrass beds: evidence from multiple stable isotope analyses. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 215, 93–106.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montin, G. J., & Dennis, I. I. I. A. B. (2006). A shallow water technique for the successful relocation and/or transplantation of large areas of shoalgrass (Halodule wrightii). In S. Treat & R. Lewis (Eds.), Seagrass restoration: success, failure and the costs of both (pp. 41–48). Valrico: Lewis Environmental Services, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, K. A., Neckles, H. A., & Orth, R. J. (1996). Zostera marina (eelgrass) growth and survival along a gradient of nutrients and turbidity in the lower Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 142, 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, K. A., Wetzel, R. L., & Orth, R. J. (1997). Seasonal pulses of turbidity and their relations to eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) survival in an estuary. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 215, 115–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakase, K. & Shimaya, M. (2001). Restoration technology of seagrass beds. In EMECS 2001 Executive Committee (Ed.), The Fifth International Conference on the Environmental Management of Enclosed Coastal Seas (pp. 19–22).

  • Orth, R. J. & Moore, K. A. (1982). The biology and propagation of Zostera marina, eelgrass, in the Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. Washington, DC: Final Report U.S. EPA

  • Orth, R. J., Carruthers, T. J. B., Dennison, W. C., Duarte, C. M., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck, K. L., Hughes, A. R., Kendrick, G., Kenworthy, W., & Olyarnik, S. (2006). A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems. Bioscience, 56, 987–996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paling, E. I., Van Keulen, M., Wheeler, K., Phillips, J., & Dyhrberg, R. (2003). The influence of spacing on mechanically transplanted seagrass survival in a high energy regime. Restoration Ecology, 11, 56–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paling, E. I., Van Keulen, M., & Tunbridge, D. J. (2007). Seagrass transplanting in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia: a comparison of manual transplantation methodology using Posidonia sinuosa Cambridge et Kuo. Restoration Ecology, 15, 430–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paling, E. I., Fonseca, M., Marieke, M., Katwijk, V. & Keulen, M. V. (2009). Seagrass restoration, coastal wetlands—an integrated ecosystem approach. Elsevier, 687–713.

  • Parthasarathy, N. K., Ravikumar, R., Ganesan, R., & Ramamurthy, K. (1991). Distribution of seagrasses along the coast of Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Aquatic Botany, 40, 145–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perrow, M. R. & Anthony, J. (2002). Handbook of ecological restoration, vol. 2. Cambridge University Press.

  • Raj, K. D., Monolisha, S., & Edward, J. K. P. (2017). Impacts of traditional shore seine operation along the Tuticorin coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast India. Current Science, 112, 40–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reigersman, C. J. A, Houben, G. F. H. & Havinga, B. (1939). Rapport omtrent den invloed van de wierziekte op den achteruitgang van de wierbedrijven, met Bijlagen. Provinciale Waterstaat in Noord - Holland, Haarlem.

  • Saito, Y., & Atobe, S. (1970). Phytosociological study of intertidal marine algae. I. Usujiri Benten-Jima, Hokkaido. Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries, 21, 37–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seddon, S. (2004). Going with the flow: facilitating seagrass restoration. Ecological Management and Restoration, 5, 167–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spurgeon, J. P. G. (1992). The economic valuation of coral reefs. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24, 529–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, M. (2002). Tidal flat restoration in Japan: a grassroots perspective (17th ed.). Geneva: Session of the Global Biodiversity Forum. Global Biodiversity Forum, IUCN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thangaradjou, T. (2000). Eco-biology, culture and experimental transplantation of seagrasses of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University, India.

  • Thangaradjou, T., & Kannan, L. (2005). Marine sediment texture and distribution of seagrasses in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Seaweed Research and Utilization, 27, 145–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thangaradjou, T., & Kannan, L. (2008). Survival and growth of transplants of laboratory raised axenic seedlings of Enhalus acoroides (Lf) Royle and field-collected plants of Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy, Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers and Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 12(3), 135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thangaradjou, T., & Kannan, L. (2010). Productivity and biomass of the seagrasses of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (India). Journal of Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation, 4, 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thangaradjou, T., Sridhar, R., Senthilkumar, S., & Kannan, S. (2008). Seagrass resource assessment in the Mandapam coast of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, India. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 6(1), 139–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treat, S. F., & Lewis, R. R., III. (2006). Seagrass restoration: success, failure, and the costs of both. Selected Papers presented at a workshop, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota. Valrico: Lewis Environmental Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, S. J. (1995). Restoring seagrass systems in New Zealand. Water and Atmosphere, 3, 9–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waycott, M., Duarte, C. M., Carruthers, T. J., Orth, R. J., Dennison, W. C., Olyarnik, S., & Kendrick, G. A. (2009). Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 12377–12381.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Dr. Jonathan Paul Aden Gardner, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, for reviewing the paper. Thanks are also due to Tamil Nadu Forest and Environment Department for the research permissions and collaborations.

Funding

The study was funded by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India; the GIZ India; and the IUCN.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute, 44 Beach Road, Tuticorin, 628001, India

    J. K. Patterson Edward, K. Diraviya Raj, G. Mathews, P. Dinesh Kumar & A. Arasamuthu

  2. IUCN India Office, C4/25 Safdarjung Development Area (SDA), New Delhi, 110016, India

    Nisha D’ Souza

  3. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Ramanathapuram, 623503, India

    Deepak S. Bilgi

Authors
  1. J. K. Patterson Edward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. K. Diraviya Raj
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. G. Mathews
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. P. Dinesh Kumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. A. Arasamuthu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Nisha D’ Souza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Deepak S. Bilgi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. K. Patterson Edward.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Edward, J.K.P., Raj, K.D., Mathews, G. et al. Seagrass restoration in Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu, Southeast India: a viable management tool. Environ Monit Assess 191, 430 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7546-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7546-5

Keywords

  • Seagrasses
  • Restoration
  • Gulf of Mannar
  • Transplantation
  • Sprigs