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Comparison of the sustainability of bean production systems based on emergy and economic analyses

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Abstract

To address increasing demand, bean producers have intensified agricultural activities by increasing application of industrial inputs. Such intensification can impose environmental risks to vulnerable ecosystems. Emergy and economic analyses were utilized in this study to investigate and compare the environmental performance of five management patterns specified by differing degrees of intensification, i.e., ecologic, integrated, low-, medium-, and high-input production systems at Bean Research Station in Khorram Dasht, Iran. The total emergy supporting these systems was estimated to be 6.52E + 15, 1.22E + 16, 6.62E + 15, 1.10E + 16, and 1.54E + 16 sej ha−1 for the ecologic, integrated, low-, medium-, and high-input systems, respectively. The purchased emergy inputs accounted for the largest portion of the total emergy inputs to these systems and ranged between 60.84 and 75.80%. The renewable fractions, transformities, emergy yield ratios, environmental loading ratios, emergy sustainability indices, and the economic output to input ratios demonstrate that the ecologic and low-input systems performed well compared to the three more industrial systems when considering their environmental sustainability. However, the more industrial systems had comparatively higher economic output. Generally, the results illustrate that sustainable bean production will depend on the transition from fossil fuel-intensive systems to more natural resource-intensive ones. To achieve more sustainable systems, applying conservation tillage and replacing chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer are advocated for use in bean production systems. Joint use of emergy and economic evaluation provided different but complementary standpoints for comparison of the five bean production systems examined, and can assist in solving the problems that may occur in decision-making.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unit of Agroecology, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran

    Mohammad Reza Asgharipour & Hasan Shahgholi

  2. US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI, USA

    Daniel E. Campbell

  3. Unit of Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran

    Issa Khamari

  4. National Bean Research Station of Khomeyn, Khomeyn, Iran

    Adel Ghadiri

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  1. Mohammad Reza Asgharipour
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  2. Hasan Shahgholi
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  3. Daniel E. Campbell
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  4. Issa Khamari
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  5. Adel Ghadiri
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Correspondence to Mohammad Reza Asgharipour.

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Appendix

Appendix

The details of natural and economic flow calculation procedure of each system.

Ecologic system

Solar energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (during growth season, 2.9E + 09 J m−2) × (1-albedo, 0.8) = 2.32E + 13 J.

Wind, kinetic energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (air density, 1.3 kg m−3) × (drag coefficient, 0.002) × (geostrophic wind, 10/6 × 2.64 m s−1)3 × (growth season, 9.42E + 6 s) = 1.08E + 09 J.

Rain, chemical potential energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (evapotranspiration, 0.341 m year−1) (density, 1000 kg m−3) (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 1.62E + 10 J year−1 for precipitation.

Precipitation evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.117 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.54E + 09 J.

Ground water evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.612 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 2.90E + 10 J.

Soil erosion = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (soil loss rate, 1.63 kg m−2) × (organic matter content, 0.51%) × (5400 kcal kg−1) × (4186 J kcal−1) = 1.88E + 09 J

Integrated system

Solar energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (during growth season, 2.9E + 09 J m−2) × (1-albedo, 0.8) = 2.32E + 13 J.

Wind, kinetic energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (air density, 1.3 kg m−3) × (drag coefficient, 0.002) × (geostrophic wind, 10/6 × 2.64 m s−1)3 × (growth season, 9.42E + 6 s) = 1.08E + 09 J.

Rain, chemical potential energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (evapotranspiration, 0.341 m year−1) (density, 1000 kg m−3) (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 1.62E + 10 J year−1 for precipitation.

Precipitation evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.117 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.54E + 09 J.

Ground water evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.860 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 4.08E + 10 J.

Soil erosion = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (soil loss rate, 1.73 kg m−2) × (organic matter content, 0.51%) × (5400 kcal kg−1) × (4186 J kcal) = 1.99E + 09 J

Low-input system

Solar energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (during growth season, 2.9E + 09 J m−2) × (1-albedo, 0.8) = 2.32E + 13 J.

Wind, kinetic energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (air density, 1.3 kg m−3) × (drag coefficient, 0.002) × (geostrophic wind, 10/6 × 2.64 m s−1)3 × (growth season, 9.42E + 6 s) = 1.08E + 09 J.

Rain, chemical potential energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (evapotranspiration, 0.341 m year−1) (density, 1000 kg m−3) (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 1.62E + 10 J year−1 for precipitation.

Precipitation evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.117 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.54E + 09 J.

Ground water evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.613 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 2.91E + 10 J.

Soil erosion = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (soil loss rate, 1.70 kg m−2) × (organic matter content, 0.51%) × (5400 kcal kg) × (4186 J kcal−1) = 1.96E + 09 J.

Medium-input system

Solar energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (during growth season, 2.9E + 09 J m−2) × (1-albedo, 0.8) = 2.32E + 13 J.

Wind, kinetic energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (air density, 1.3 kg m−3) × (drag coefficient, 0.002) × (geostrophic wind, 10/6 × 2.64 m s−1)3 × (growth season, 9.42E + 6 s) = 1.08E + 09 J.

Rain, chemical potential energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (evapotranspiration, 0.341 m year−1) (density, 1000 kg m−3) (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 1.62E + 10 J year−1 for precipitation.

Precipitation evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.117 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.54E + 09 J.

Ground water evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.858 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 4.07E + 10 J.

Soil erosion = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (soil loss rate, 1.87 kg m−2) × (organic matter content, 0.51%) × (5400 kcal kg−1) × (4186 J kcal−1) = 2.16E + 09 J

High-input system

Solar energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (during growth season, 2.9E + 09 J m−2) × (1-albedo, 0.8) = 2.32E + 13 J.

Wind, kinetic energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (air density, 1.3 kg m−3) × (drag coefficient, 0.002) × (geostrophic wind, 10/6 × 2.64 m s−1)3 × (growth season, 9.42E + 6 s) = 1.08E + 09 J.

Rain, chemical potential energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (evapotranspiration, 0.341 m year−1) (density, 1000 kg m−3) (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 1.62E + 10 J year−1 for precipitation.

Precipitation evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 0.117 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.54E + 09 J.

Ground water evapotranspiration energy = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (transpiration, 1.073 m year−1) × (density, 1000 kg m−3) × (Gibbs free energy, 4740 J kg−1) = 5.09E + 10 J.

Soil erosion = (area, 1 ha) × (10,000 m2 ha−1) × (soil loss rate, 2.42 kg m−2) × (organic matter content, 0.51%) × (5400 kcal kg−1) × (4186 J kcal−1) = 2.78E + 09 J.

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Asgharipour, M.R., Shahgholi, H., Campbell, D.E. et al. Comparison of the sustainability of bean production systems based on emergy and economic analyses. Environ Monit Assess 191, 2 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7123-3

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